Here we take a look at the rainbow of artists' paints and the pigments that give them their fabulous color. Far more could be said about every one of these pigments. We recommend supplementing this resource with your own research as there is much more to discuss about each pigment than we go into here. Two great resources we recommend are artiscreation.com, written by David Myers, and a guide to watercolor pigments from Bruce MacEvoy which will also apply to many oil and acrylic paints, though lightfastness can vary based on media. Both sites have more information on toxicity, Blue Wool Scale tests, and chemical composition. Also our understanding of lightfastness in oils is evolving, and the interactions of pigments in the same mix may have a greater effect than was ever previously realized.

This is a very brief key to help decode the most powerful piece of information on a paint tube- the pigment code. For those who are not as familiar with this, it's the little code on the back of the paint that says something like "PY35." From that you can tell a great deal about the lightfastness, sometimes the hue, the chemical properties of the pigment, and a whole lot more.

As a quick primer, the "P" is for pigment, followed by a letter that stands for the color. So we have

PR = red, PO= orange, PY= yellow, PG= green, PB= blue, PV= violet, PBr= brown, PBk= black, and PW= white

Please note that binding oils as well as the collection of additives, stabilizers, or extenders may affect lightfastness in ways not discussed here. Specifically the choice of mixing whites has a surprising effect on certain pigments in oil painting. See Golden's research for more.

We have slightly higher requirements for lightfastness than some painters do. Ideally we do not like to see any falloff of lightfastness in tints (all 8's on the blue wool scale is ideal), as most of an oil painting is mixed with white unless one is using glazing techniques. So, when we say lightfastness is moderate, this refers to around a 6 on the blue wool scale, or even worse a 5. For some that is still acceptable, but we have fairly stringent requirements.

Please note: this guide does not discuss health and safety. Many important artist pigments are toxic. More detailed information on safety can be found in the manufacturer's MSDS sheets, and we always recommend supplementing these with additional third party research.

The red group of pigments spans the deep, cool crimsons to near oranges. From deep cherry, to Ferrari, to tomato, we're always looking for the ability to hold color in sunlight when it comes to the red section. There are historical notes from Rose Madder, 20th century staples like the cadmiums, and even a few unusual ones like Potter's Pink.

Lightfastness is important in any pigment, however, reds are an area where we are especially attuned to look for paints that won't fade in tints. Many gorgeous reds do not hold up well enough over time to be considered for artist's paints. There are a few beautiful ones that artists love so much they are willing to bargain on the lightfastness, come what may.

There are several which, in our opinion shouldn't be made into artists' paint. Just by happenstance, these paints start our foray into red pigments currently in use by paintmakers.

PR3 - Toluidine Red. The first numerical pigment to be considered starts off a whole section of inadequate pigments. This abominable color has a blue wool scale of 3/8 (about ASTM IV category). If you are new to this, the way it works is higher the blue wool scale on a scale of 1-8 the better- eight is the best. For us, sevens mean moderate. Sixes are lower than we would use. A three is quite surprising.

PR5 - Naphthol Red DK. (One of several Napthol reds). Moderate to inadequate lightfastness. We were surprised to see this color found in a currently available Cadmium Red Imitation hue by a major art supplier, and they listed good lightfastness. Perhaps they found a better source for the pigment, but it might be worth doing one's own lightfastness tests.

PR9 - Naphthol AS Red (one of several napthols). We were surprised to find PR9 in oil paints currently available on the market - especially because these are primarily found in Cadmium Red imitations. This pigment has only moderate lightfastness- it is given an ASTM II in oil but depending on the paintmaker's pigment supplier, it may only get 5's in tints on the Blue wool scale. In watercolor, Bruce MacEvoy calls it very fugitive, and notes it is ASTM III in watercolor. However, his tests showed even worse performance- something like IV. We primarily noticed this pigment in student lines, and to make matters worse the PR9 was sometimes found alongside other pigments that also performed poorly.

PR19 - This is an interesting case of a pigment that might not exist. If you see PR19 double check, because it might be a typo. This color is listed on artiscreation as Arylide Maroon, and very interestingly, it simply lists this pigment as obsolete without much information at all.

On closer inspection, it seems that this color, when found as a pigment listing for a paint, may actually be a typo for PV19. When we checked, we saw that it was listed for St. Petersburg Masterclass oils as well as a Utrecht magenta blend which is very likely PV19. In regards to Utrecht, their brochure listed PV19 while the Blick site stated PR19. Our guess in the Utrecht case is that it's PV19 Rose - the pink version.

PR22 - Naphthol Red Bright (one of several Napthols). Not recommended for artist's paints due to poor lightfastness. This dips into the bottom category of ASTM III, which is below the dividing line for even for other peoples' standards in paints. Thankfully we did not see it in oil, but we were shocked to see it in no less than 10 commonly available acrylics. However we mention it here as some artists combine oil and acrylic workflows in their paintings.

PR23 - Naphthol Red Dark. A pigment whose lightfastness descends to ASTM IV- not suitable for artist paints. It is currently found in six acrylic paints made by major manufacturers and at least one watercolor.

PR48:4 - Permanent Red 2B. It is a great irony of life that so many things named "Permanent" are just the opposite. This color has moderate to inadequate lightfastness and may fade to a 5 in tints depending on the supplier. Surprisingly, it is found in three oil paints by major paintmakers.

PR63:1 - Lithol Bordeaux. This Monoazo crimson pigment has inadequate lightfastness (as low as 3 in tints, and really not all that much better in other categories). Unfortunately it is found in at least one artist oil paint line.

PR81:1 - Rhodamine 6G [FIAT] What appears to be a bright, chromatic pink, this one only showed up in watercolors. Unfortunately too low in lightfastness to be suitable for artist's paints. A sinkingly low ASTM IV.

For natural red earths, there are two main varieties: natural and synthetic. However these cover a huge array of colors and consistencies. The natural ones may have a bit more nuance, and many that we've tried have a large particle size (read grit). The synthetic ones, sometimes labeled Mars Red, can have an extremely fine particle size.

These are useful in all manner of mixtures- to complement blues, to mix flesh tones, to create deep dark passages at low lightnesses or to create glowing chroma. Along with other earths (see yellow earth and brown earth) these earth tones have played a central role in art history and human cultural production.

The names for red earths often derive from places where certain red earths were historically mined. Each place has a distinctive set of qualities which helped to form the traditional names. "Venetian Red" or "Pozzouli Earth" harken to places where these colors were found. A cannon has arisen around these names such that synthetic colors with similar properties may borrow from the geographic names, but unfortunately this is not a guarantee as there is no standardization. These names are discussed below and may apply to synthetic or natural earths.

PR101 - Synthetic Iron Oxide Red. Also known as Red Oxide or Synthetic Red Ochre. This pigment group includes a huge variety of synthetically made red earths, oranges and violet-browns. Particle size can vary considerably and with the synthetic version it can sometimes be very small- though this is by no means a guarantee. Some brands, like Williamsburg, publish guides to the grainyness of their colors, while other brands rely on the brand vibe to convey the degree of homogenization among their colors (for example, some brands are known to make very smooth colors overall).

The PR101s are a wide-ranging bunch, and they can be red, brown, orange, violet or even greenish. They are super lightfast.

PR101:1 - Red Hematite. This is a fairly rare pigment code to find. A subset of PR101.

PR102 - Natural Red Iron Oxide or Red Ochre. These can come in almost any color of earthtone (brown, red, orange, yellowish or even greenish). There is a lot of variety. Sometimes the particle size is a bit larger than the synthetics, but this is not a given. These are pigments of outstanding permanence and lightfastness.

Natural Red Ochres are associated with paints that tend to be fairly opaque. Sometimes natural red ochres have a character that is just not matched by a particular synthetic pigment due to various other naturally occuring components in the pigment. Sometimes natural colors are a bit more softened than their synthetic counterparts. For many reasons the natural versions of these pigments retain their charm.

Naming conventions in the synthetic red earths are often derived from art history and from their natural red earth counterparts (see also PR102, Natural Red Iron Oxide). Each name has a general pattern of what to expect from the pigment but there is no standardization.

A few names are common among synthetic red earths.

Transparent Red Iron Oxide: The most common name among PR101 paints. These colors tend to be distinct deep brown reds with gemlike transparency when thinned. They tend to be low in lightness and high in chroma for their depth.

Mars Red: The name "Mars" connotes that the earth pigment is synthetic. These are often powerful colors compared to natural earths. Some are opaque and about half do not have an opacity listed. Perhaps it is because the transparent versions tend to be labeled "Transparent Mars Red."

Mars Violet, Caput Mortuum: This is a synthetic earth violet or dark red. Like all PR101s these colors have excellent lightfastness and medium to low chroma. It will not produce bright tints like a synthetic violet would, but it makes some enchanting, subtle mixtures - good for flesh tones at times and also for realistic painting. Caput Mortuum is a related color name that actually translates to 'dead head.' These are low lightness red-purples, and many of them are opaque.

Venetian, Pozzuoli, and Pompeiian Reds: A group of colors that have some variety, and tend to be rather chromatic red-orange earths. Their natural counterparts sometimes have a large particle size, but whether this is mirrored in the synthetic variety is not a given. They tend to be associated with a bit more of an orange and tend to have more opacity. Again this varies from brand to brand. Most of the synthetic versions of these reds are opaque, while the natural versions tend to be listed as semi-opaque or semi-transparent.

English Red, Light Red: This color grouping tends to be a little redder than the Venetian Reds, but it varies from red-orange to red. Many of the synthetic versions are opaque and have good covering power. The term "Light Red" in earths refers to a similar color and opacity. The color of Light Red is a relative term as many of these are not light at all, but rather a kind of burnt red orange. While the synthetic Light Red paints tended to be opaque, the natural versions tended to be semi-opaque or semi-transparent.

India Red, Indian Red, Persian Red: This grouping tends to refer to very intense, opaque reds with a lower lightness and high covering power. A few are semi-opaque, but often this names is given to very intense opaque red earths with a lot of presence. They tend a bit redder than many Venetian reds and some are quite deep. Even among natural Indian Reds (PR102) most are opaque.

Burnt Sienna: One of the quintessential artist's colors, Burnt Sienna has diverse applications in all styles of painting from flesh tones to landscape to abstracts, this warm brown is everywhere. The same paint name is also found among the PBr7s, as well as many natural red earths, colour index PR102. Burnt Sienna is a warm middle brown which often shows rosiness in tints. It It is brown and a red at the same time. Burnt Siennas range from transparent to semi-opaque, however it is also possible to find opaque versions. Natural versions (PR102) are often named French or Italian depending on their origin and may have larger variety of particle sizes.

Mars Brown: Even though this is a PR101 (pigment red), they are sometimes brown. These colors tend to be intense, and it is fairly common for them to be opaque. Perhaps this is because the transparent versions tend to get labeled Transparent Brown Oxide.

Terra Rosa: A red with a faint purple note, these tend to be lighter and redder than Mars Violets/Caput Mortuum. The ones we've tried have tended to be powerful and opaque.

Orange Oxide: Despite being made of PR101, these paints are orangeish. Transparent versions get named Transparent Oxide Brown. Among the Orange Oxide PR101s, it is a little more common to see transparency.

There are other names besides these, but those are some of the major categories. These categories may also be applied to similar colors made with brown earths (PBr7) as well.

NR31- Dragon's Blood. Uncommon in artist pigments, and not found in oils, but it can be found. A. Gallo writes, “Dragon’s blood is a surprising red made from the resin of the Daemonorops draco plant and other rattan palms. This exotic red was used by the early Greeks, Romans and Arabs in art and medicine." ASTM IV, so not lightfast. It is based on a tree resin.

NR9- Madder Lake (Natural Red) or Rose Madder Genuine. Four oil colors are currently made with this historical pigment. This is a lovely historical hue. We had a vintage tube, and it had a sort of "glazes only" quality. It was sometimes streaky but a rather high chroma pink (nothing like PR122). Something like a milky transparency, a transparency in masstone. The light gets around the edges when looking at in bulk just out of the tube.

Depending on exactly how it is manufactured, its properties may vary. Pigment NR9 is sometimes called Alizarin or Purpurin (genuine Madder Lakes contain both Alizarin and Purpurin), and there is some interesting literature on how the purpurin fades out (weirdly, despite the resemblance to the color name purple, purpurin is an orange color which is fugitive). Reports on the lightfastness of natural madder in oils vary tremendously. Virgil Elliott notes that the thickness of its application may affect its permanence and that it may fare better unmixed and at full strength rather than a glaze. How this pigment is manufactured as well as the precise process may matter a lot. Some vintage paints in oils from Winsor and Newton are surprisingly beautiful with a filmy/milky pink consistency. However we would not rely on this as a lightfast pigment. Agreement is pretty uniform that genuine Rose Madder fades.

PR104 - Molybdate Orange. Currently made by Rublev, this is an bright orange that is also toxic -extremely toxic - as it contains Chromium VI.

PR105 - Red Lead, also called Minium or Surik. Very poisonous. A color which was popular historically. Rublev carries this as an oil paint, and it is one of the few paints of theirs to contain an additive as it has a short shelf life (as in maybe several months) when made into oil paint, and the additive will extend it a bit. This color is very toxic (Natural Pigments says to use utmost care to avoid exposures to this pigment- see their site for more details and as always be sure to do your own third party research). The dry pigment is reported to be a reactive, and light may blacken it. However it does seem that binding it in oil may have some sort of protective effect, though Red Lead may be reactive to the air. Even in oil it may have some sensitivities to the environment and may also perform poorly in mixes, though we have not verified this.

PR106 - Vermillion (Genuine), Mercuric Sulfide. The natural mineral is called Cinnabar.

We were fascinated to see lightfastness tests from the legendary Gunzorro (one can find his vermilion tests here). Similar findings were echoed independently by Virgil Elliott. Unfortunately this pigment which has captivated painters does indeed darken with enough light exposure.

Perhaps notably, Natural Pigments mentions that glazing madder lakes over Vermilion may help to mitigate Vermilion's tendency to darken.

There is discussion that the way it is manufactured may make a difference to its lightfastness as well as a note that the natural mineral may be better than the manufactured versions. This is one of the physically heavier pigments.

Controversy also rages over whether it is toxic, but we would err on the side of caution and list this as a toxic pigment.

Several different color varieties of this pigment may be found depending on where it was mined or how it was manufactured. Cinnabar is the name of the rock form of this pigment, while genuine Vermilion is the name of the paint. Famous mines were in Monte Amiata.

It is rumored that the finest qualities of real vermilion have not been available for a very long time, at least not since the closing of the famous Monte Amiata mines in Spain.

It has become difficult to ascertain the quality of various tubes of Vermilion as they are sometimes cut with fillers or may even have Cadmium Red standing in for the genuine pigment. It's said that some of the duller versions of vermilion may be substandard representations of what this pigment can be. On the other hand there are some brilliant cadmiums that are difficult to distinguish from the better versions of vermilion which poses a different challenge. There may be some simple studio tests for distinguishing genuine vermilion from cadmium.

Also it is said that genuine vermilion is very slow drying. The great Gunzorro once described PR106 as somewhere between red earths and the cadmiums. There are at least two different main color groupings within Vermilion. The two colors of vermilion tended to be the orangey, and the Chinese, which was a cooler red. The former color is associated with the Imperial kind (or Monte Amiata Imperiale) which made warmer pinks in tints.

PR108 - Cadmium Red. Cadmium Selenosuphite or Cadmium sulfoselenide. A smashing pigment that is opaque, high chroma, and lightfast. The color can range from red-orange to a rich bright red, to a moody maroon. Classic Cadmium Red is available in Light, Medium, and Deep and gets solidly excellent marks for lightfastness. Bear in mind though that prolonged exposure in direct sunlight (i.e. for years) will eventually darken them. (For a super-lightfast and sadly extinct specialty version of Cadmium Red see below). One of the great things about the opacity is a hard to define quality in the presence of these colors- their opacity sends the color back to the eye with a centered, authoritative confidence.

A handful of Cadmiums can create a built-in rainbow section of the palette. Of course interstitial notes can be mixed between them, and we recommend this for beginning painters. However at full strength a series of cadmium reds and red-oranges can create a pleasing representation of the palette colors at high chromas. From this gorgeous series of progressively warming notes the cadmium reds flow seamlessly into the cadmium oranges.

The only potential drawback is if a person is looking for high chroma tints-brighter tinted red-oranges for example. Cadmium Red can be a bit chalky in tints, however a couple of varities we tested were a bit brighter than the others. The note of desaturation it takes on is not necessarily a bad thing in realistic work. At full strength, it is one of the most chromatic colors at several hue angles.

The cadmium reds are one of the main pigment groupings for oil paints. Most cadmium reds will bear the pigment code PR108, however some will have PR108:1 as a sort of less expensive version. We have read that the degree of redness relates to the amount of selenium as well as differences in heating.

Also, as a quick reminder that lightfastness does not mean the same as weather-fastness. Cadmium reds are sensitive to moisture.

This pigment spans red-orange to cherry reds to deep purpleish maroons. Paint makers will name their colors Light, Medium, or Deep to distinguish the major hue groupings. On either end of the gamut one may find Cadmium Red-Orange or even Cadmium Maroon. For more on cadmium reds, see these articles with paint comparisons: Cadmium Red Deep and Medium, and Cadmium Red Light and Medium.

There is some controversy over the degree of toxicity of these paints (artiscreation lists PR108 as a B, meaning there is toxicity), and always we err on the side of caution. We treat them with the respect we give to toxic pigments.

PR108:1 - Cadmium-Barium Red, a cadmium red made in a more inexpensive way. Seen sometimes in student brands.

PR113 - Mercadium Red. An extinct pigment which deserves special note as a super-lightfast red. We'd call it very toxic (artiscreation gives it a D meaning, "Extremely Toxic, only attempt working with these pigments (especially the dry form) in laboratory like conditions with proper safety equipment "). While cadmium reds have excellent lightfastness in general, this one is famous for having even more lightfastness in a test of extended light exposure done by Virgil Elliott. At one time Vasari offered this as a color, however they no longer carry it.

PR112 - Naphthol Red AS-D (one of several Napthols out there). This pigment crops up everywhere, and it is gorgeous in tints, but not nearly as chromatic as some of the other reds when lightened. Still this makes a lovely ingredient for certain pinks.

Unfortunately Napthol Red PR112 also fades more than we would like to see in an artist color. Also, in oil this color showed surprising reactivity with lead white and will shift color in minutes. See Golden's Lightfastness Testing in Oils for more.

I used to absolutely adore this color and I only wish it were more lightfast. It makes the most interesting red tones in skin for portraiture- a lyrical red-pink with an orange hint. It was one of my most favorite colors that I used to use as a student before I found out it was not lightfast.

PR122 - Quinacridone Magenta. This is a staple pigment for any palette- able to get higher chroma light reds and red purples when mixed with white than many other pigments. It creates smashing purples and lovely tints, and it has excellent lightfastness depending on the supplier. It can also help to tune reds towards crimson.

This was the first addition to my palette after painting with a strict limited palette for some years. Quinacridone Magenta opened up new areas of the gamut for red-purples. I now paint with a range of Quinacridones at various hue angles in addition to this one. This color is exceptionally cool in tints and useful for purples and fuchsias.

One of the more cool magentas. Of the available options in the magenta range it has some of the most promising lightfastness, however this may be something to look into and test from brand to brand. The Artiscreation lightfastness scales show some variations as far as lightfastness. One hopes to find the versions which are excellent and receive the highest ratings.

Whether painting with a split-primary palette or a very abbreviated power-palette of just a few CMYK colors, Quinacridone Magenta is one of the most important pigments. A crucial component for purples and red-violets.

PR177 - Anthraquinone Red, This is a widely used red in "Alizarin Crimson Permanent" and other substitutes for fugitive Alizarin. It's very transparent.

Even though it received an ASTM I designation, it is reported to eventually fade. In Virgil Elliott's long term lightfastness tests revealed interesting things that go beyond the regular ASTM testing from the 1980s. He performed many interesting tests, and one of his six-year test panels can be found here.

So, while some pigment suppliers make a product that can receive all 8's (excellent) on the blue wool scale, this pigment does appear to fade eventually with long-term exposures which go beyond usual lightfastness testing.

This is a rich, lusterous, sparkling red with depth in a helpful area of the spectrum. It is transparent and chromatic at a low lightness. If you use this color it might be helpful to do your own lightfastness tests since among suppliers it seems to vary a bit.

PR178 - Perylene Red (distinct from Perylene Maroon). Lightfastness is decent to moderate. May be better in watercolors, however it may fade in tints.

PR179 - Perylene Maroon. Valuable as a transparent red. In thicker glazes it can appear similar to Anthraquinone Red (PR177), but in thinner glazes a different nature is revealed. A helpful color where deep, chromatic reds are needed. Some versions are very slow drying, but worth it. This color tends to be transparent and is reported to have excellent lightfastness.

PR184 - Permanent Rubine F6G. Not recommended due to moderate lightfastness. Ranges from decent to fugitive.

PR187 - Permanent Pink FL. This is the famed Carl's Crimson. A LF rating of II. This is a fun red that makes some interesting tints and blends. However the ASTM II rating is not as high as we'd like to see, so we would not wholesale recommend it based on moderate lightfastness.

PR188 - Naphthol Scarlet Lake

PR202 - Quinacridone Crimson. This is stellar color which has at least two different natures. When I first found this pigment, I fell in love with the bright purple-magenta color since certain forms of it are reported to be very lightfast (some have solid 8's on the blue wool scale). It is fairly rare in oil paints. Since then I have had trouble finding the more purple version as it was replaced in the paint line where I had found it by the more magenta kind.

This is a color I'd recommend as a standalone pigment- not necessarily for mixing, but rather for its beauty on its own.

PR206 - Quinacridone Burnt Scarlet. Unfortunately this was recently discontinued. It made an interesting complement to certain greens, and was a fascinating color in its own right. We explore this pigment in an article on Discontinued Pigments.

PR207 - Quinacridone Scarlet. A gorgeous light red which was also recently discontinued. This red had good lightfastness and was smashing in tints. Quinacridone Scarlet has a delicate quality reminiscent of PR209.

PR208 - Benzimidazolone Red HF2B

PR209 - Quinacridone Red. We love this color so much that the ASTM rating of II just hurts to see. If it's from a supplier where you can avoid those blue wool scale 6's that's one thing, but this beauty seems to have a definite risk of fading depending on the supplier. This color is a merry red that makes gorgeous tints. It has transparency to it. May be better in for lightfastness in watercolor than in oil. PR214 - Fastogen Super Red 2R. Decent to excellent lightfastness. PR221 - Pigment Red 221. This is listed as ASTM II, so that is a bit lower than we like to see.

PR233 - Chrome Tin Pink (Potter's Pink). This is a wild color in artist's oils which is fairly rare. It is a fairly dull pink- the dry pigment looks a lot more lively than the paint. However it is reported to have good lightfastness.

PR242 - Disazo Condensation Scarlet. This is a fascinating orange-red which is fairly rare in oils. It makes beautiful high chroma tints. It also has good to excellent lightfastness. However, the version by Schmincke Mussini is a slow drier.

PR251 - Pyrazolo-quinazolone scarlet. Good to excellent lightfastness.

PR254 - Pyrrole Red

PR255 - Pyrrole Scarlet

PR254 is Lightfast, soaring chroma, and used on Ferrari's. What more could a person want. This is actually a fairly good approximation for certain brands of Cadmium Red Medium. It is a very intense color. We did a deep dive on this pigment. We made comparisons to cadmium red, explored its complements, and also its use in mixes.

PR255 is an equally awesome, though lesser known, Pyrrole Scarlet. Why would you want PR255 in addition to PR254? It makes smashing, chromatic tints that lean a little oranger than PR254. We love this color. Excellent lightfastness.

For Pyrrole Rubine PR 264, see below.

PR259 - Ultramarine Pink. An enchanting red-purple with excellent lightfastness. This is a super fun color to add if you have already explored most other areas of the palette. As soon as we tried this pigment there was no going back, as one cannot have too many lightfast red-purples.

PR264 - Pyrrole Red Rubine. Excellent Lightfastness. This is recommended by some as an alternative to Alizarin Crimson.

PR272 - Pigment Red 272. Also a pyrrole, this one has good to excellent lightfastness.

PR287 - MayaCrom Red R2051; related to the modern discovery of Maya blue.

PR290 - Sicopal Red. Fairly rare in artist pigments. Said to have excellent lightfastness. An orangy red used by Roman Szmal and also Cobra water mixable oils. Non-staining, granulating.

PR298- YInTiCo - This fabulous color is lightfast, has opacity, and is an enchanting raspberry. It also has infrared reflective properties.

PR83 - Alizarin Crimson (Genuine). The "genuine" part must now be added since the pigment is now discontinued and imitations already abound. This is a rich gem-like crimson that is has been incredibly difficult to replace. It is baffling that it is so difficult to replace exactly. Alongside its beauty, painters have been plagued with a quandary: what does one do about its terrible lightfastness? PR83 is often used as a fading pigment by which to judge the lightfastness of other colors- unfortunately Alizarin tends to loose its lightfastness that reliably. In addition to the fading this pigment has issues with cracking, which is less often discussed, but nonetheless reported to be an issue.

Alizarin Crimson was beloved in the 20th century, and many painting books recommended it despite its poor lightfastness. That issue seems to be even worse in watercolor than in oil. So, due to its performance it cannot be recommended, but in any case it is now in the process of actually disappearing by way of discontinuation.

In 2023 or 2024 it was phased out by pigment makers, however some paint companies still have supplies of this traditional mainstay. It is incredibly difficult to replicate this pigment, and part of its mystery is a brown note hidden in the crimson. It is a deep dark red, which is an area of the palette where painters can always use more pigments. Many companies have turned to PR177 as a permanent Alizarin. However, Virgil Elliott's tests revealed that in time PR177 also fades, despite the name "Permanent."

Some recommend PR264 Pyrrole Rubine as a replacement. Old Holland also has an interesting imitation blend to approximate genuine Alizarin.

PR83:1 - Synthetic Alizarin Lake. This is a less commonly listed variation of Alizarin Crimson, however artiscreation.com posits that perhaps actually it is this variety that is often found in tubes labeled PR83.

PR88 - Thioindigoid Violet. Speaking of extinct pigments, this plum color is also unfortunately no longer available. It has decent to good lightfastness.

Precise identification eludes the casual reader of National Gallery Bulletins and this interests us very much.

This interesting and somewhat diverse class of terms have a way of leaving one wanting more in terms of clarity when reconstructing the palettes of famous painters. The names of the red lakes or red lac as it is sometimes called, display a specificity (like cochineal). Yet the terms can seem to rearrange and melt into one another again (is cochineal the same as kermes?) in one's peripheral vision.

Here we refer to the laked pigments of madder (also see notes on NR9), cochineal (NR4) - that much-discussed insect, and kermes, another often-mentioned insect and its associated dye- which also has a way of blending into the cohcineal-natural-crimson-lake-listings in conservation history. Specifically, we're talking about Madder, the plant Rubia tinctorum L., Conchineal insects, Dactylopius coccus, and Kermes insects, Kermes vermilio. However the list does not stop there.

As artists, we are interested in the composition and preparation, but also how these were used in terms of process, and ultimately in terms of color. Rich, deep reds as well as subtle and soft pinks are an important element in painting. When wishing to know more about the artistic application of these colorants we wish there were more information. Glazing is certainly part of the discussion, and there is a great collective ache that these lovely colors are not more lightfast. We are also curious as to the original colors these various lakes and dyes possessed as far as the discovery of the best correlations among lightfast pigments.

Interesting modern options include the fugitive and recently discontinued genuine Alizarin Crimson, the eventually fugitive Alizarin Crimson Permanent (see discussion of PR177), the various concoctions of something like an Opera Rose (often lacking permanence also), the historical NR9 (see discussion of that pigment). Interest circles around PR264 for a crimson, PR179 for another deeper crimson, and PV19 Rose versions for a very bright pink.

Some of these historical lakes have held up surprisingly well but many have faded (the Mona Lisa used to have red sleeves) and Van Gogh's purples made with eosin- another vibrant red lake- have turned from violet to blue. So while interesting research may be done on their composition and manufacture, as well as inquiry into why some red lakes have not faded so badly, historical red lakes on the whole are not considered lightfast.

Where does orange begin and end? This is a pigment category that borrows a bit from yellow (some PY pigments are definitely orange) as well as its other neighbor, reds (red lead fits right in). This is a category without a ton of lightfast options, and only a handful of the pigments used in artist's paints are really fit for them in our opinion.

Again the pigment listings begin with a few not-fit-for artist-paints pigments.

PO5 - Hansa Orange RN. Sometimes labeled Permanent Orange, unfortunately it is not permanent at all, and has moderate lightfastness. It's currently offered in oils by two paintmakers. Sometimes the blue wool ratings show fading as bad as 4 in tints, and even the better versions are still looking at 5's and 6's.

PO13 - Benzidine Orange. A reputable artist pigment manufacturer uses this as a single-pigment imitation of Cadmium Orange. It also crops up in a handful of convenience blends- at least six- by another paintmaker. Unfortunately this color has shockingly low lightfastness in tints, as low as 3 on the Blue Wool Scale.

PO16 - Benzidine Orange. This color is actually used by a modern paintmaker in oils. It has abomoinable lightfastness and is reported to fade to a 2 or 3 on the blue wool scale.

Even though oranges may be mixed from reds and yellows, there are times one wishes for pure orange- perhaps for complementary mixing or for the highest chroma the painter's gamut can offer.

For a high quality orange, genuine Cadmium Orange is surprisingly vital for this role as it brings both knockout chroma as well as opacity from the marigold notes to bright orange.

PO20 - Cadmium Orange (genuine)

PO20:1 - Cadmium-Barium Orange, a version of cadmium orange that is less expensive to make.

Genuine Cadmium Orange, PO20, is surprisingly difficult to emulate or replace. In discussions revolving around cadmium alternatives the lack of a suitable orange is acutely felt. When painting realistically a range of less chromatic oranges can absolutely be mixed from cadmium yellow deep and Cadmium Red Light. However there is actually a chroma boost from cadmium orange that is hard to match. It was years into our painting journey when we realized just how irreplaceable this color is, and once you really begin to study the chroma difference, it's hard to go back. (This is sometimes becomes especially clear in a medium like gouache). The opacity and overall character of cadmium oranges make them a wonderful addition to the palette.

Cadmium Oranges come in several color notes from a near macaroni orange to middle orange to red orange. More on Cadmium Orange can be found in our brand comparison in oils.

PO34 - Pyrazolone Orange. Suprisingly this color is used by at least three major paintmakers in oil as single-pigment color, and . Depending on the supplier the pigment ranges from inadequate lightfastness to poor, and even in the better ratings it's not that good. It's also found in blends by about six paintmakers and sometimes it is paired with other pigments that also have lightfastness issues. Artiscreation notes that Lightfastness may be slightly improved in redder versions. However the performance is reported to be not very good. Unfortunately several paintmakers use this color in their paints.

PO36 - Benzimidazolone Orange HSL. Offered by four major oil paint manufacturers as a single-pigment color and that increases to about six companies when it's found as part of a blend. The lightfastness for this color varies widely according the supplier. It would be advisable to do lightfastness tests if it is a color you like to use. From some pigment suppliers the lightfastness is excellent, and for others it is merely moderate. Williamsburg describes their version as, "Strong, somewhat sour, tomato-like red orange," and cites the ASTM I rating.

PO36:1 - Quite possibly a variant of PO36 used by Michael Harding. See above.

PO43 - Perinone Orange. Moderate lightfastness, best to do some research if this pigment is part of your workflow. Only one major manufacturer uses this as single-pigment paint in oils, however five other paintmakers have used it in a long list of blends. Lightfastness can dip to a five on the blue wool scale in some cases, so best to do one's own tests.

PO48 - Quinacridone Burnt Orange. Unfortunately this interesting pigment has been discontinued, however as of recently it was offered by four major paint brands, and may still be found in a few sap green blends. Along with Quinacridone Gold, PO49, it was smashing for botanicals and all kinds of realistic subjects. It's like a supercharged, chromatic, rich, dark stained glass Burnt Sienna. It has excellent lightfastness in oil.

PO49 - Quinacridone Gold. Radiant, especially in mixtures to create botanical greens. This color is unfortunately extinct, and there was great mourning when it left the art supply store shelves. A wonder from the the automotive industry, which we still hope will bring it back someday, there isn't anything exactly like it. We've done some tests on pigments which can come close. If you're purchasing it, be on the lookout for imitations. Real Quinacridone Gold is a treat.

PO59 - Pigment Orange 59. Also known as Paliotol® Orange, this color is a transparent golden yellow orange and has excellent lightfastness. Currently it is offered by just one paintmaker in watercolor.

PO61 - Isoindolol Orange, also known as Irgazin® Orange L. This color has moderate to excellent lightfastness depending on the pigment supplier, so one may wish to do one's own lightfastness testing. It's offered by one paintmaker in oil and acrylic, and turns up in a few blends in watercolor.

PO62 - Benzimidazolone Orange H5G. This is a color that turns up in a handful of the attempts to replace Cadmium Orange. It doesn't have the same high chroma, nor does it have the same opacity as cadmium orange. However, setting the cadmium discussion aside, in its own right this is a fun and possibly interesting pigment. Good lightfastness overall with a slight fall off in tints- we wish it were even a little more lightfast as it's a nice, not-quite-highest-chroma orange. It neutralizes ultramarine really well. Even though Gamblin describes this color as the same masstone as Cadmium Orange, we'd disagree based on their version of it, which we like a lot. We'd say this color is slightly less chromatic than cadmium orange.

PO64 - Benzimidazolone Orange (one of several). A rarely found artist pigment, used by one paintmaker in oils. Moderate lightfastness.

PO65 - Benzimidazolone Orange (one of many kinds). This one is fairly rare in artist paints. It's Used by Old Holland in Golden Barok Red. It has decent lightfastness but not excellent.

PO67 - Pyrazoloquinazolone Orange. This is a nice red-orange that tints well, meaning it retains high chroma in tints. It does not turn as pink in tints as PO73 does, which is a slightly redder pink. PO67 doesn't seem to move Munsell hue much in tints, and is a bit oranger/yellower overall than PO73 with a bit less chroma as well and a bit more opacity. Even so, it has a bold bright middle orange in masstone. It is not officially rated by the older ASTM standard, however it does appear to be somewhere around an ASTM II in watercolor. In oil a couple of paintmakers give it high marks, so it may be worth doing your own lightfastness tests using the mixing white of your choice.

PO71 - Pyrrole Orange. Sometimes known as Transparent Orange or Transparent Pyrrole Orange. It's a deep, bright red orange. Some sources list this as ASTM II, others as decent to excellent on the blue wool scale. This is one of several DPP pigments (see below). Much more commonly found in watercolor than oils, PO71 is offered by only one major oil and acrylic paintmaker, however about 8 paintmakers offer it watercolor.

PO72 - Hostaprint Orange H4GL 32. This is listed with a lightfastness of excellent. It is rare to find it in paints, and one watercolor maker has included it in their line. however artiscreation advises doing one's own tests depending on the binder to see how it performs.

PO73 - Pyrrol Orange. Also sometimes known as Irgazin® DPP Orange and sometimes maybe even Cosmoray Orange. This seems to be an important synthetic orange- a possible alternative to the redder forms of Cadmium Orange, but it is less opaque and is also unfortunately a bit more reactive than was once thought.

Aside from the reactivity, it creates gorgeous light orangy-pink tints-- this is a good color if tints of cadmium red are desired-- it does in practice what many hope for from a cadmium. In other words, it fulfills that hope that one has when adding white to a cadmium. Pyrrole Orange makes what may be the very best red-orange tints with a hint of a pink undertone.

In masstone it's a stunner and has blazing high chroma.

Most give this pigment high ratings for excellent lightfastness, however there were some strange curveballs found in oil paints. In the recent testing by Golden, PO73 seemed sensitive to mixing whites and binding oils, specifically Safflower Oil. This may be significant as several companies offer this pigment in a safflower oil blend. For more, consult Golden's recent research on lightfastness in oil paints.

PO86 - Bismuth Vanadate Orange. This is a newer pigment and is thought to be highly lightfast. It's offered by at least one watercolor maker at the time of this writing.

PO107 DPP - The term DPP may refer to one of several pigments. DPP lacks a pigment code but may be Cosmoray Orange (Irgazin DPP)- the name Cosmoray can sometimes be conflated with PO73, so you might need to disentangle the two. According to Artiscreation, It may also refer to PO107 or PO108 (experimental). Both are reported to have excellent lightfastness. At the time of writing, it's offered by at least one major watercolormaker.

Jim Harris (aka Gunzorro) once wrote of a "fairly stable rainbow." For our paintbox, this is one of our main top choices for the core notes of yellow. The opacity and high chroma are some of the reasons we adore cadmium yellow. It comes in Light, Medium, and Deep.

PY35 - Cadmium Zinc Sulphide. Glorious high chroma yellows ranging from citrusy lemons to middle yellows to warm marigolds. This pigment can almost dip to orange. Paintmakers offer them in Lemon, Light, Medium, Deep and Extra Deep.

PY35:1- Cadmium Lithopone Yellow. It's helpful when paintmakers designate if they are using this, as it's a slightly cheaper pigment with slightly diminished tinting strength.

PY37- Also cadmium yellow, a harder-to-find version, but about ten paint makers offer it in oil. It is often said this is a purer form of Cadmium Yellow, but I had to turn to Artiscreation to find an answer of what this might mean. There I found, "Concentrated Cadmium Sulphide w/ below 15% Barium Sulfide." He also mentions that this variety tends to be a bit redder than PY35.

We've been told on good authority that some cadmium yellow lights are so bright they exceed the gamut of cell phones!

It can be helpful to have a wide range of cadmium colors as each one can provide a note of high chroma at a slightly different hue angle. This arpeggio of yellows provides a very good backbone for color mixing, and using a string of cadmium yellows one can easily find one's way around mixing greens, mixing oranges, and using the knowledge of these colors for any subject.

It is recommended by painters who favor the cadmiums to have a lot of different choices from a lot of different brands. The reason for this is not to benefit paintmakers, rather each paintmaker chooses the notes of color from a wide gradient of available choices from lemon yellow to marigold so the names Light, Medium, and Deep vary tremendously from brand to brand. Sometimes a Cadmium Yellow Medium in one brand will equate to a Cadmium Yellow Light in another. When starting out, a person can pick a Cadmium Yellow Light and a Cadmium Yellow Medium or Deep to simplify the options and learn color mixing.

We compare several Cadmium Yellow Lights in oils, as well as several Cadmium Yellow Deeps.

Something fascinating about cadmium yellows is the way the add lightness to a mix- especially Cadmium Yellow Lemon. For some applications a person wants transparency or does not want this lightening, so we would recommend other pigments for transparent yellows (see note on PY110, also PY150).

Debate has raged around the cadmiums, and they are listed as pigments with toxicity, so be cautious with them. Lately we have seen a lot of resources suggesting the pigments are engineered to be far less toxic than just regular cadmium. We always err on the side of caution with pigments (there is no downside to being super careful) and so we always handle these with respect and care. That said they should not be sprayed and the dust should be avoided. It should go without saying, but do not ingest them.

While these are terrific pigments for lightfastness, they are vulnerable to moisture. Also as a historical note, there were some past issues with cadmium yellows due to the older forms of cadmium manufacture (pre 1920s). However these were changed and the result was favorable.

We've become fascinated by this color range- again, in part because it provides a built-in section of the rainbow for one's palette. This color tends to be a slower drier and is mostly opaque.

Perhaps surprisingly this is also an area where colors abound, but suitable colors may be harder to find when one takes a closer look. The quest for opacity and lightfastness leads us always back to the cadmium yellows.

We've been grateful for Golden's work in sounding the alarm regarding a couple areas of the yellow gamut. Some of the Hansas started giving less than desirable lightfast readings, due possibly to differences in their pigment manufacture, and so Golden made changes to their lines. Oil painting occasions special challenges, so once again they rose to the occasion in their lightfastness testing with different mixing whites in oils. For more on the performance of their current yellows in oil, check out Golden's recent Lightfastness Testing.

PY14 - Diarylide Yellow AAOT, an Azo Yellow, Disazo Type 11 Toluidide. Lightfastness is reported by third party sources to be poor-- quite fugitive. This pigment may actually descend to a blue wool scale of 1 on a scale of 8, with 8 being good and 1 being basically falling off the bottom of the scale.

We were very surprised to find this pigment in artists oils. One manufacturer, who is quite well thought of, mentioned its stability and reports the lightfastness of their version as ASTM II, so perhaps there is some variety.

We wondered if there is some discrepancy somewhere, as artiscreation reports quite sorrowful lightfastness testing for PY14 with the low end of moderate for masstone and dramatic fading in tints. We wondered if there was a typo somewhere, and we checked the six digit code reported by the manufacturer (21095). It does indeed seem to be PY14 and both sources mention that the color is used mainly in printing. Perhaps doing one's own lightfastness tests would be useful.

PY108 - Anthrapyrimidine Yellow. Excellent lightfastness but this may vary across binders. It may be advisable to do your own lightfastness testing. May also be related to historical Indian Yellow. Currently this color is offered by at least one major watercolor maker.

PY109 - Isoindole Yellow. Excellent to decent lightfastness with a bit of fading in tints. Offered by two watercolor makers.

PY110 - Isoindolinone Yellow. This is a fabulous, under-recognized yellow that is fairly warm and is incredibly useful in mixes. It makes a great yellow for sap green convenience blends and is quite versatile. It is reported to have excellent lightfastness. The transparency of this yellow is a huge attraction. Painter Kathleen Hudson noted that it can be used in mixes without adding a lightening effect to the overall mix. We have found it be outstanding for mixing greens.

PY117 - Paliotol Yellow. A rare green-yellow which was unfortunately discontinued. Some sources listed excellent lightfastness, others decent to excellent. Currently it is still offered by one oil paint maker.

PY119 - Zinc Iron Yellow or Zinc Ferrite Brown Spinel. Good or excellent lightfastness. This color crops up in a few blends in oil paints. It is somewhat rare to encounter this one in oils. It's used as a single-pigment in a handful of watercolors, and the yellow is muted or sometimes even the tone of a red earth. It's sometimes called Spinel Brown or even Magnesium Brown. It is also in a few Gold Ochre imitation hues.

PY120 - PV Fast Yellow H2G. Lightfastness can vary. This is a rare pigment which appears to be in use by one paintmaker. A bright middle yellow.

PY128 - Azo Condensation Yellow, sometimes called Transparent Brilliant Yellow or Polyazo yellow. This is a transparent yellow worth getting to know though lightfastness is not perfect (7's and 8's on the Blue Wool Scale). It is a little bit difficult to find a good lightfast transparent yellow at this hue- Artiscreation suggests that perhaps it is an alternative to historical Cobalt Yellow or Aureolin.

PY129 - Irgazin Yellow, also known as Green Gold. This is actually quite green but it takes on more of a yellow in tints. PY129 actually expands the painters' gamut in the low notes of the yellow-greens and allows some of the highest chroma low-lightness greens. Toxicity is listed as B so handle with care.

Unfortunately in the recent Williamsburg lightfastness tests it displayed more reactivity than we would have hoped depending on the mixing white. In that round of testing, it looks to us that it did not respond well to a handful of things such as Lithopone, Safflower Oil, Zinc, or Flake White. Depending on the brand of Flake/Cremnitz Lead White, PY129 might not fare well. This was interesting news because PY129 is such a great pigment for a hard-to-replace area of the gamut and for us it may be worth it to use it in the ways wherein it performed well. See Golden's Testing for more.

PY138 - Quinophthalone Yellow, also known as Sulphur Yellow. It's lightfastness varies depending on the source- some list it as ASTM II and others reported as excellent. It's recommend to do one's own tests. The toxicity is reported as A, so low. This is a fairly rare pigment in oils, however it can be found from Holbein and Vasari. Vasari describes it as a cool yellow which mixes gently with others and they include it in their Basic Yellow, along with offering it as a single-pigment paint. In particular, they mention that it doesn't lighten a mix like a Cadmium Yellow can. On the other hand it also does not have as high of chroma as a cadmium. We have heard it described as a light bright yellow which differs from Vasari's description. In watercolors it does appear very bright in some brands.

PY139 - Isoindoline Yellow. There is a bit of fading in tints (7's and 8's for the Blue Wool Scale), however lightfastness is somewhere between decent and excellent. Sometimes made into a Permanent Yellow or even a Cadmium imitation hue. It's somewhat rare to find this pigment in a single-pigment paint in oil, however it shows up in a fair amount of warm marigold-colored blends, like Indian Yellow.

PY147 - Pigment Yellow 147. Polycyclic Anthraquinone. Lightfastness is decent. A fairly rare pigment found in at least one watercolor paint currently available.

PY150 - Nickel Azo Yellow. While it may look like a brown, this is a tremendous saturated yellow with depth which expands the gamut. It is incredibly useful- maybe almost indispensable for increasing the range of hues in oil paint and also for depicting lower-lightness high-chroma yellows.

As many painters will tell you, it can be difficult to descent down into the lower lightness steps of yellows. One may start out thinking it's as easy Grapevine dance only to find out it's more like a Viennese Waltz. PY150 is a color that can help maintain high chroma in difficult mixes.

All the while it maintains solid 8's (highest marks) for lightfastness on the blue wool scale. There may be a slight difference in lightfastness in Lead White.

This color goes through some fun spinning turns of its own as a person adds Titanium White. In masstone it looks like a dark brown, but it has hidden high chroma glazes and tints. Toxicity is a B, so handle with care.

PY151 - Benzimidazolone Yellow H4G. Most manufacturers give this color solid 8's (highest marks) for lightfastness, with just one showing a bit of fall-off in tints. While common in watercolors, this is a fairly rare color to find as a single pigment in oils. It was recently made by Daniel Smith before they ceased to make oil paints. However, it can sometimes be found as a constituent of blends.

PY153 - Nickel Dioxime Yellow. Once highly prized, this color is now sadly extinct. It was highly transparent and had a golden yellow orange note in masstone with a bright sunshine when spread thinly. Favored by botanical artists for the gradient it offered but loved by all. It has an ASTM I in oil and a slightly lower rating in watercolor, however Handprint's tests were more favorable.

We were so sad when this was discontinued around 2012, as it was a yellow with a fascinating character- different in masstone than in tints and glazes. Whereas PY150 has a similar behavior from brown to cooler yellow, this color, PY153, gradated from orange to chromatic yellow. It was a very slow drier.

PY154 - Benzimidazolone Yellow 154. A famous yellow that is an alternative to Aureolin, also known as cobalt yellow, which is less lightfast. While not perfect, the lightfastness is between decent and excellent.

PY155 - Benzimidazolone Yellow 155. Somewhat rare to find, but one oil paint manufacturer offers this as a single pigment color. It is also found in several blends.

PY159 - Zirconium Praesodymium Silicate Yellow. Not currently found in oils, however this is much more commonly found in watercolor, and several companies make it into a single pigment paint.

PY164 - Manganese Antimony Titanium Buff Rutile. This shows up in watercolor as a single pigment brown. One company offers it in oils.

PY168 - Azo Yellow 168. Currently one company offers this in watercolor.

PY17 - Dairylide Yellow 17. One company offers this as a single pigment paint and it also finds its way into a few blends.

PY175 - Benzimidazolone Yellow H6G. Though there is a slight fade in tints, this color has decent to excellent lightfastness. A cheery lemon yellow. It's quite popular in watercolor and also offered in oils and acrylics. It is a fairly common single-pigment color as well as an ingredient in convenience greens.

PY180 - Benzimidazolone Yellow (one of several). This color is not currently offered by any major paintmakers in oil, however it is offered by a couple of companies in watercolor.

PY181 - Benzimidazo Golden. Excellent lightfastness. Offered by one company in watercolor, the hue looks orange.

PY183 - Paliotol Yellow K227. Offered by one major company in watercolor.

PY184 - Bismuth Vanadate Yellow. A famous yellow which can come close to some cadmium yellows. This hue is typically portrayed as a cool yellow, however it is a bit warmer than we realized when we compared it with truly acidic lemons. It is light, bright, high chroma, and gorgeous overall.

PY189 - Nickel Titanate (not to be confused with PY53). Offered by one company in watercolor.

PY216 - Solaplex Yellow. A somewhat rare and interesting color. This is found in a couple of oils and watercolors, and is usually a chrome yellow replacement color.

PY223 - MayaCrom Yellow Y2351RS. Currently offered by at least one company in watercolor.

PY227 - NTP Yellow. Found from one company in watercolor. This is an interesting pigment that seems to be fairly new. Initially it looks as though it may have good lightfastness.

The Hansas are an area where you'll want to keep an eye on the lightfastness. They can vary from brand to brand. Also check out Golden's recent Lightfastness Testing.

PY1 - Hansa Yellow G. This has only moderate lightfastness, and sometimes the lightfastness can be very poor. Handprint recommends PY154 instead.

PY3 (Also known as PY3 10G).- Hansa Yellow 10G. Lightfastness is moderate in tints. This is one of the brightest lemon Yellows. However there has been some variability in the lightfastness of Hansa Yellow pigments over the years, depending on the way they are manufactured, and its old assignment of ASTM II may not reflect the current pigment market. Artiscreation mentions "PY 97 or PY 154 are similar and more light fast, PY175 is a nice lemon yellow too."

PY31 - Barium Chromate, also known as Baryte yellow or in older literature as lemon yellow. This is a very rare color in oils, and is currently only produced by Michael Harding. Blockx used to manufacture this color, but it has not been seen available in the United States for some time. It is an enchanting green-yellow. However this fascinating color is also toxic. It often has a greenish note to the pale yellow. Its toxicity is listed as C, meaning "Hazardous, use appropriate precautions for handling toxic substances, especially if working with the dry powder; Do not ingest; Avoid dust & spray."

PY32 - Strontium Chromate. A lively, hard-to-find bright yellow, which is prized by some painters. The quality may vary a lot depending on the pigment and the way the paint is formulated- we have two samples which have fared quite differently. One of the two was a very slow drier. Artiscreation classifies it as a "B" for toxicity, however please always err on the side of great caution- we would also consider this pigment toxic though we are not toxicologists. It has a bright yellow character - the paint we have tried in oil is similar in hue to a cadmium yellow lemon. Artiscreation mentions that "may turn greenish due to the partial conversion to chromium oxide."

PY34 - Lead Chromate. A very toxic pigment that contains both lead and chromate. A carcinogen. Once when I met a chemist at an art demo and mentioned chrome yellow, his eyes widened and his eyebrows leapt up and he warned me of its extreme toxicity due to Chromium IV/ hexavalent chromium. Artiscreation lists the toxicity as "C", meaning "Hazardous, use appropriate precautions for handling toxic substances, especially if working with the dry powder; Do not ingest; Avoid dust & spray."

Besides this there are other reasons to wonder about this color as it is known to darken- though modern means of manufacture may help to mitigate this somewhat by coating the particle. Of the two modern paints we've tried they had masstones similar to colors in the cadmium yellows, though they did mix differently than cadmiums. Of the two we've tried, the primrose variety showed some color shift, possibly due to being stored in the dark. We have heard of differences in manufacture that can mitigate darkening somewhat, however that goes beyond the scope of this article, and we feel the drawbacks outweigh any benefit. Please treat this pigment with extreme caution. This pigment tends to be a slow drier.

PY36 Zinc Yellow. Zinc chromate (may also have some chemical variations- see Artiscreation for more). This color is a dull yellow with a note of green leaning. It is rarely used in artists paint and is currently not used at all. We include it here as some vintage tubes may turn up. This color is given a toxicity of B, so use care.

PY39 Orpitment, Realgar. These are extremely toxic. They are also reactive with other common pigments. These are listed for historical purposes only. We do not recommend using orpiment for any reason.

PY40 Cobalt Yellow, also known as Aureolin or Aureoline. Potassium Cobaltinitrite. This color was prized for being transparent to semi-transparent. The lightfastness of this historical pigment was not as great as was hoped. Usually ASTM II is cited for Aureolin but in Golden's Recent Lightfastness tests it was one of several pigments that struggled in Safflower oil, WB Flake White, and Lithopone. It is one of the yellows that is sensitive to moisture and didn't respond as well to humidity either. Unfortunately Cobalt Yellow was discontinued, as discussed more here.

Also known sometimes as Giallorino.

There are three related pigments which can sort of blur together a bit, but they are distinct. Lead Tin Yellow type 1, Lead Tin Yellow type 2 or II, and Genuine Naples Yellow which is also a lead yellow, also known by the code PY41. The terms Lead Tin Yellow, Naples Yellow genuine, giallolino, giallorino, massicot, and litharge all need a little bit of clarity as they may or may not refer to similar things when people use them.

These colors are somewhat heavy in physical weight and mellow in the way they mix. They are more chill than most synthetics, most cadmiums, and have a semi-transparency to them. However they are poisonous and expensive.

Lead Tin Yellow Type 1 or Type I. This pigment doesn't have its own Colour Index pigment code, and is an important historical color. This color is toxic. Natural Pigments describes it as "Lead stannate, prepared from a heated mixture of lead dioxide with tin dioxide; Lead-tin oxide." This version is more commonly found in old paintings, and is associated with European painting. This tends to be a bit lighter yellow than Lead Tin Yellow (Type II), but it can also be made into an orange when heated. It is usually a buttery light yellow, or bright primrose yellow, but there are also very light whitish yellow versions (think warm white) of Lead Tin Yellow.

Lead Tin Yellow Type II or type 2, is "Lead-Tin Oxide Silicate, made by fusing lead, tin, and quartz." A toxic yellow as well, Artiscreation notes that this is "redder and deeper...and more transparent" than type 1. Sometimes paints made with Lead Tin Yellow (Type II) are labeled Lead Tin Yellow Deep.

This color is actually distinct from Genuine Naples Yellow PY41- another toxic lead yellow. More on this below.

There is also another lead-related yellow orange called Litharge or Massicot, which of course are also toxic. A bit more on those can be found below under PY46.

Since the hue varies a lot it's one of those areas where the exact brand will matter to the color of the paint.

Natural Pigments makes a Lead Tin Yellow light. In modern times both colors have been more often approximated by blends, though with Lead Tin Yellow the blends are not usually named after the pigment as in Naples Yellow. However, regardless of the names, there are a lot of mild yellow mixes out there which fall in the neighborhood of Lead Tin Yellows. The historical pigment color comes in several hues. It is toxic.

Also shown here is an approximation for Orpiment, an extremely toxic pigment which seldom found (see above).

PY41 - Naples Yellow Genuine. Also knowns as Giallorino, Antimony Yellow. This is an interesting color which is very toxic. In color it ranges from a middle yellow with fairly high chroma to carmel brown. Imitations for this toxic pigment abound, and we counted about 54 different combinations for blends in oils alone.

There are a couple of shades of this color which can be found at Natural Pigments. We've tried a handful of these in a couple of historical color quests. We started with a caramel version of this color and branched out into other kinds.

While it is interesting in mixes, artiscreation mentions, "When it comes into contact with a metallic iron or tin or zinc, Naples Yellow becomes gray. It is advisable to use a horn or wooden spatula in preparing and/or mixing the pigment," and quotes the Dictionary of Artists' Oil Pigments. While this color has a role in art history, its toxicity is a huge drawback.

PY46 Litharge. Lead Monoxide. This pigment is toxic. Sometimes Litharge and Massicot are used interchangeably but they are distinct. This is not usually used as a standalone pigment in oil, and the Natural Pigments site has information on the differences.

PY42 - Yellow Iron Oxide, and

PY43 - Natural Yellow Iron Oxide

Sometimes the natural ochres are a bit softened compared to their synthetic counterparts due to naturally-occurring minerals that get labeled impurities but actually can be quite nice for the overall effect of the paint. We have heard that many (but not necessarily all) natural ochres may have a little bit of the synthetic in the pigment to ensure color consistency.

Some of the oldest pigments, Yellow Earths are foundations of the palette. Some of the common names for paints are Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, and Golden Ochre. There is a lot of variety in the names- you might also encounter Orange Ochres, Ochre Havane, Transparent Yellow Oxide or Mars Yellow. They can vary in transparency, color, and particle size.

Yellow Ochres tend to be lighter to mid-value caramel colors. They have excellent lightfastness and the synthetic ones may have a bit of opacity, though about half of the synthetic ones are semi-opaque. Among natural yellow ochres Semi-Opacity or Semi-Transparency is much more common. However this pigment group is best when it has a bit of lightness to it- not like the deep transparent paints labeled Transparent Yellow Oxide. Yellow Ochres may be labeled Lemon, Light, Pale, or Deep. Natural ochres may bear the name of their origin such as French or Italian. These colors, like all earth tones, have a wide variety of particle sizes (aka grittiness).

Lemon Ochres are a smaller subset of Yellow Ochres that tend to be a little lighter or a little yellower in color. There is no standarization though in naming, so this is not a hard and fast rule. Some of the modern natural earth versions we've tried have a larger particle size.

Raw Sienna This is an established name space that is one of the major categories of earths. Strangely we did not notice many synthetic PY42 paints labeled Raw Sienna, though there are a few. Natural Raw Sienna tends to be Semi-Opaque, though that may be a more recent trend. The Raw Siennas we've encountered tend to be similar to yellow ochre but they are more orange and sometimes a bit deeper in lightness. However, at least one older text which refers to natural Raw Sienna describes it as a greyish brown that leans cool and has transparency, which does not sound like the peanut-butter color we usually encounter. These days Raw Sienna seems to be a kind of second Yellow Ochre- a bit deeper and warmer.

Golden Ochre/ Gold Oxide can range in color, so it's hard to determine based on paint name and pigment code alone. Among synthetic colors they tend to be opaque, and among natural colors they are usually Semi-Opaque. Where they are transparent this is sometimes (but not always) mentioned. We associate them with colors that are a little oranger than Yellow Ochre and Raw Sienna.

Ochre Havane is often an orange ochre that is opaque or semi-opaque.

Orange Ochres are some of our favorite colors for their mildness and versatility in mixes.

Transparent Yellow Oxide: This color is an interesting one as it can be deep brown out of the tube and yet very chromatic in glazes. It reveals its color in tints. It is rare to find natural earth paints with this property, so it is often synthetic. This color version, while it shares the same pigment code with Yellow Ochres, can be used very differently in painting due to its different lightness and chromatic behavior.

Mars Yellow or Mars Orange: A color name which applies to the synthetic yellow oxides. It can be opaque or transparent, or somewhere in between. Sometimes the transparency is noted in the name (e.g., Transparent Mars Yellow). Light and Deep are sometimes added as well.

PY53 - Nickel Antimony Titanium Yellow Rutile or Nickel Titanate, sometimes called Nickel Titanium Yellow. This color is super useful for making lower chroma colors. It does have toxicity and is rated B, so please do be mindful and careful as you would with any other similarly rated pigment.

This color excels in creating low-chroma mixes. In masstone it's an enchanting light yellow with a faint green in the overall color impression. Listed as a "B" for toxicity, we advise treating all pigments with great caution, and this one is no exception.

It's not a replacement for Lead Tin Yellow, but it is a color that keeps us coming back. It's a hard-to-describe pale yellow color with secret-superpowers in mixing.

PY61 - Pigment Yellow 61. A lightfastness of of ASTM II puts it at moderate in Paint List terms. Not found in oil, and exists in at least one brand of watercolors.

PY65 - Hansa yellow 65. A common orangey yellow or Yellow Deep. Frequently found as a single pigment but also popular in blends. Depending on the supplier, this pigment can be decent or just moderate in terms of lightfastness. There were some interesting results from Golden's recent lightfastness testing in oils and it may be quite reactive to Zinc and certain formulations of Lead White.

PY73 - Arylide Yellow GX. This color was removed from Golden's paint blends for lightfastness issues. Historically this pigment was rated as LFII, however changes in the way it is manufactured may be part of its trend toward LFIII. Golden opted to replace PY73 in their line with PY154. See their Hansa update for more. Surprisingly this gets a "B" for toxicity. It is available as a single pigment from four or five paintmakers.

PY74 - Arylide Yellow 5GX. This is a very popular sunny yellow with high chroma, but may have lightfastness issues. Lightfastness ranges from decent to moderate in tints, and depending on the supplier may be insufficient. Artiscreation mentions that the lightfastness may be better in opaque formulations of the pigment.

PY74LF - See above for PY74. The convention of adding LF is not in the colour index, however the distinction may account for the two formulations of the pigment. From artiscreation: "transparency depends on formulation. Comes in both opaque and transparent versions. It appears that the light fastness is better in opaque formulations."

PY75 - Arylide Yellow. Looses some lightfastness in tints, but otherwise decent lightfastness. This color is used in traffic paint, and Artiscreation mentions that it is possibly a good substitute for some chrome yellows (we would guess these are the warmer yellow-orange ones he is referencing). Rare as a single pigment oil, but found in a number of blends.

PY81 - This is a lemon yellow that is fairly rare in oils. Known as Diarylide Yellow H10G. It has an ASTM LF rating of II and is found for some reason in combination with Titanium White but not as a single-pigment paint in oils. There is at least one single-pigment paint in watercolors.

PY83 - Diarylide Yellow HR. A pigment with two natures- and two lightfastness readings to match. This warm orange-yellow is a very tricky pigment with two varieties that vary a lot in lightfastness.

We're grateful to Golden for illuminating the differences. One kind has excellent lightfastness and more opaque while the other form is transparent and has poor lightfastness. Unfortunately the current ASTM only ascribes one lightfastness code, which is applied across types, so manufacturers will tend to simply appeal to single lightfastness reading in the table. It happens that the fading transparent version is mis-ascribed an excellent lightfastness rating. However the transparent version is so beautiful that Golden still uses it- just with the proper lightfastness ratings.

PY93 - Disazo Yellow 3G. Rare in artists' colors but listed as having excellent lightfastness. Artiscreation suggests it may be a good replacement for genuine Gamboge yellow. Sennelier calls it Turner's Yellow.

PY95 - Disazo Yellow GR. Rare in oils, it is a medium yellow that is used in a handful of blends. It may be a suitable hue for Gamboge. Listed as ASTM II.

PY97 - Diarylide Yellow FGL. Somewhat rare in oil paints. Maimeri ascribes the name Primary Yellow to this bright yellow color. Decent lightfastness but only at ASTM II. This color fades a bit in tints.

Some consider green a psychological primary, though a dazzling array of greens are readily mixed with blue and yellow. These greens have stellar soloist roles as well as in duets and trios with other pigments.

Often when speaking of lightfastness and greens, we're dealing with green mixes from a blue and a yellow. In those cases, often it is the yellow in the mix that one has to watch for lightfastness. However there are a few green pigments which fall short in the lightfastness category.

PG8 - Nitroso Green. This color has the unfortunate honor of being one of the lowest performing modern colors for lightfastness in tints, with a perilously low blue wool rating of 2, depending on the manufacturer.

NG2- Natural Green 2, Extract of Ripe Buckthorn Berries, Rhamnus catharticus. This substance is charming but very fugitive. Sap Green is also the name of a popular array of convenience blends. (See also convenience blends).

Names like Sap Green, Hooker's Green, Chrome Green, Permanent Green Light, Permanent Green Medium, Permanent Green Deep, Emerald, Verona Green, Veronese, and many others, these are blends of blue and yellow pigments. From Gamblin's Cadmium Chartreuse to Michael Harding's Bright Green Lake, from Old Holland's Cadmium Green, to Rublev's Cinnabar Green made with actual Lead Chromate, these greens have enduring popularity because a particular mix may save a person a huge amount of time mixing.

With convenience greens, always check the pigments-- especially the yellow component-- for lightfastness.

PG17 - Chrome Oxide Green. Sometimes described as ,"The green of printed money." This is an interesting, heavy pea soup green, and evokes a memory of pond plants in its hue. However in handling this color always packs a significant punch and while some have complained of phthalos being very intense, this is a color I have found to be sometimes almost overwhelming in its opacity, however like all things when used in the places one wants it, it is fantastic. A reliable color, as isn very stable. Despite having chrome in the name, this pigment is not toxic like its other toxic chrome counterparts- however, our eyes popped when we read on artiscreation that if it is poorly made it may have free chromium, which would equate to a much more toxic situation. So like all artist paints, use this color with respect.

PG18 - Viridian. Debate rages as to whether phthalo green replaces viridian, and we have found the answer to be not really. When mixing colors that are just shy of highest chroma (which happens a lot in realistic painting) viridian is a much more straightforward green to use. Phthalo can be used, but may take another pigment or two to counterbalance it and achieve a similar effect. Viridian is often paired with cadmium in cadmium green mixes, probably due to the copper in Phthalo. One interesting quirk we've found is that some brands of viridian actually seem to shift in appearance when dried. Out of the tube they may look almost indistinguishable from phthalo green, however after drying the two may appear distinct.

PG20 -Verdigris. This color is an extinct pigment and for good reason as it is not very stable in artists' applications. Specifically, Verdigris is not that good for oil painting, though it was used in art history. This color is toxic, and also changes color wildly in oil paints.

An interesting exploration of this paint in oils was done by an artist who goes by the name Yellow Oxide here. Their explorations show a dramatic darkening when mixed with Cadmium Yellow.

The sample also changed color noticably without mixing- from a cobalt-teal green to a minty phthalo-like color. Even the dry pigment undergoes color change, eventually settling to a deeper green as is seen here.

This color is associated with toxicity and Artiscreation assigns a B. We treat it as though it were more toxic than that.

PG19 - Cobalt Green Pale. This is cooler blue-green counterpart to PG26 cobalt chromite green with a note of desaturation. Mineral-based pigments like this have greater opacity and different character than their modern counterparts and can be useful in mixes for realistic painting. (See also PG26). This is listed as a "B" for toxicity, but we'd place it in the toxic arena. Makes some enchanting tints.

PG23 - Green Earth. This is an increasingly hard-to-find color, which was historically used in verdaccio and underpainting for flesh tones. Unfortunately, many companies opt for blends of yellow iron oxide and phthalo green. We have it on good authority that every- or nearly every- PG23 out there commercially has a little tiny bit of phthalo green in it. However genuine green earth has a very mild quality. Some also have larger particle sizes, so be aware of that. We find that to be a feature, but some people require very smooth paints. Some of the more interesting green earths are found from Williamsburg and Rublev.

PG26 - Cobalt Chromite Green. This is one of the palette secrets we like to share with dedicated realist painters, as this color has a useful role in mixing. While in masstone it is not exactly a showstopper- a dull green- in blends it is helpful for creating muted colors. It is rated a B for toxicity, so we'd place it among the toxic pigments. If it does contain some soluable chromium that's a toxic issue, so do avoid all contact with your mouth, don't breathe dust, etc. Please treat this with all due respect and caution just in case.

The two phthalo greens, affectionately known as yellow shade and blue shade.

PG7- Phthalo Green Blue Shade. One of the power pigments of the palette, this is a green that shows up in a staggering number of convenience blends from leaf greens to mints to green earths. This green is like some kind of mythical emerald that when broken into a million pieces creates an emerald rainbow of colors. It takes some work to divide it into all its may forms in mixes as it tends to be quite potent. We found that it is frequently added to convenience greens of all kinds-- which makes it possible to mix your own. This color also has a special role in teals and can help to mix approximations for some of the more expensive mineral-based colors. See also the note on Viridian. It tends to be dark, almost black in masstone, but reveals high chroma in tints and glazes. We have a deep dive on Phthalo Green as well as a comparison of PG7 paints in oils.

PG36 - Phthalocyanine Green YS or Yellow Shade. Queen of limes. This is a merry emerald green which leans a bit more yellow. We've used this color to make some of the highest chroma lime greens when mixed with yellow. This color is very dark in masstone, but when thinned for glazes or mixed into tints it is a gorgeous chromatic green. Robert Gamblin suggested that if only this paint had been invented earlier than the other phthalo, that PG36 would be the more popular. We find both greens to be indispensable for a high chroma palette.

While phthalos are less toxic than some other paints, be careful with tubes made before 1982 as they may contain PCBs.

PG39 - Copper Carbonate Hydroxide, otherwise known as Genuine Malachite. Malachite is a historical pigment which can be a little bit difficult to sell as an oil paint. Natural pigments at one time sold malachite in oils. It is fairly straightforward to mix an approximation. The degree of grinding matters with malachite as finer grinds will become lighter and less chromatic. Listed as toxicity B, meaning it does have toxicity.

PG50 - Cobalt Titanate Green. This is a superb teal green that is opaque and has some native lightness to to the color. Once a person starts to paint with this color it's hard to go back to a blend, though several good approximations have been created, most notably by Williamsburg. This pigment comes in a range of colors, and it can be a bit tricky to sort out the exact shade from paint name alone. There is a notably greener variety that crosses out of the teals into a dark kelly green, though it's less commonly found. This is listed as toxicitiy "B" but we would go ahead and list it as toxic. It is a great paint to experiment with once a person has mastered the basic palette, as it can yield some surprising colors in mixes. It is also extremely helpful in mixing those greens which are not the highest chroma, and yet are still chromatic.

We love these magnificent blues.

Blue is one of the most elusive colors when it comes to naturally occurring pigments. There aren't many blues out there and so we prize each and every one. Unfortunately this section of pigments also beigns with colors that are not lightfast.

PB1 - Victoria Blue. Unfortunately this color has very poor lightfastness. It is not currently used in oils, though there is at least one watercolor that is made from it.

Phthalo Blue is one of the essential colors to a modern high chroma palette, especially after the extinction of Manganese Blue. It has a ton of different names, so it's helpful to search Paint List by pigment "PB15" to discover the way it is named across brands. When in masstone this color is almost black, and yet when thinned slightly or in tints this is one of the most powerful high chroma blues out there. Phthalo makes its presence known, and for some it's too intense. If phthalo is strong for you, we would suggest cutting it into a bit of white like Vasari's Video Blue. A tiny dot of this color will go a long way. Since any amount of phthalo in a mix gives a color a 'phthalo-y look' another strategy is to switch to genuine ceruleans and cobalts, which will mix differently than the phthalo blues. However for the highest chroma rainbows, phthalo blue is essential. These colors tend to have excellent lightfastness with a few exceptions.

Phthalo Blue comes in two main varieties, Phthalo Blue Green Shade and Phthalo Blue Red Shade. The Red Shade is a tiny bit more likely to mix toward a middle blue that leans toward indigo where the Green Shade is similar but leans more toward cyan. Thankfully the Green Shade is clearly marked PB15:3 because it is quite useful in mixing teals.

Sometimes a paint company will leave off the number after the colon, which is unfortunate, as the additional information helps artists. The Green Shade makes the best cyans as well as the cleanest, most chromatic teals when mixed with PG7 and white.

PB15 - Phthalocyanine Blue (type unspecified). Sometimes a brand will simply omit the number after the colon. However the PB15 may also refer to a specific six digit code (74160) which is identified as the "a form", a combination that it shares with PB15:1 and PB15:2.

PB15:0 - Rare, but possible to encounter. Probably Red Shade.

PB15:1 - Phthalocyanine Blue RS, or Phthalo Blue Red Shade. Also the "a form" of the phthalo pigment with the number 74160.

PB15:2 - Phthalocyanine Blue, similar to Phthalo Red Shade. It shares the "a form" of pigment 74160. The manufacturer of the pigment may matter a bit- some versions show a little fading in tints, but overall decent to excellent lightfastness. In watercolor it has an ASTM II.

PB15:3 - Phthalocyanine Blue BGS, Phthalo Blue Green Shade or just Phthalo Blue Green Shade. This variety is made from the "b form" of 74160. This makes the best cyans and teals. Depending on the manufacturer, lightfastness is either excellent or decent in tints.

PB15:4 - Phthalocyanine Blue NCF. This color is sometimes used in printing inks as well as in Manganese Blue Hue substitutes. It tends to be a light, transparent cyan and some brands even call it Phthalo Blue Light. This is listed as ASTM II is watercolor, and may fade a bit in tints. The "b form" of 74160.

PB15:6 - Phthalocyanine Blue. Rare but also found in artist paints. This may have less lightfastness (ASTM II) in watercolors. This is the "e form" of pigment 74160.

We've put together a comparison of [Phthalo Blue Green Shade] in oils.

Also included here is PB16 - Heliogen Blue L 7560; Phthalocyanine Turquoise, which is a slightly greener shade of phthalo right out of the tube with excellent lightfastness.

While phthalos are less toxic than other paints, be careful with tubes made before 1982 as they may contain PCBs and handle all artist colors with care.

PB27 - Prussian Blue or Milori Blue. A color with a strange backstory, as its discovery involved blood. This is a moody, dark blue that is great for marine landscapes as well as any darkened middle to low chroma color in the blues. Unfortunately it's lightfastness isn't what was once thought, as Prussian Blue is fairly sensitive to the mixing white involved. It's interesting that this was ever listed as ASTM I as certain pigment suppliers now list its performance in tints to be quite low (as low as blue wool scale 2)! This color has a lot of related spin-off colors which fly under the flag of PB27 such as Antwerp Blue and several others.

PB27:1 - Prussian Blue (see above). This may refer to Brunswick Blue or Turnbull's Blue.

PB28 - Cobalt Blue (Cobalt Aluminate Blue Spinel) or Thenard's Blue is a mainstay of the palette- a beautiful middle blue that tends to lean toward the more blue-purple side. While some would mix approximations from phthalo and ultramarine, we enjoy a hard-to-describe quality about cobalt related to its opacity. It is listed as toxicity B, which means it is toxic. So do use great caution. Cobalt blue PB28 comes in a variety of colors.

As opposed to other pigment categories where there might be a light, medium, or deep for each pigment, Cobalt seems to have a range within PB28 as well as a separate pigment for Cobalt Blue Deep, which is PB74.

PB29 - Ultramarine Blue. Of all the most essential colors of the palette, this one makes our short list. There is nothing like it. We're grateful for the discovery of synthetic ultramarine as it's hard to imagine what it would be like to be without a deep royal blue at the ready. This color is dark in masstone, chromatic in tints, and transparent.

There are two main forms which are slightly different- one is slightly more reddish than the other. Many paintmakers will name the redder version “French”. It has excellent lightfastness, however it does have a few tricks up its sleeve in oils. There is something called ultramarine sickness which describes some changes that can occur to the paint. However there don't seem to be any viable alternatives and for most intents and purposes ultramarine behaves itself. For some wildcards regarding ultramarine, see Golden's recent lightfastness testing.

Genuine Lapis Lazuli shares the same pigment code as synthetic ultramarine blue. However the two are extremely different in practice. Genuine Lapis has a blue-grey note to it in all but the highest grades, and also reveals yellowing in oils more than we've noticed from regular ultramarine. Lapis may shine better in applications other than oils. However if you want to try it, it's made by Rublev and Michael Harding.

PB30 - Basic Copper Carbonate, Blue Verditer, Blue Bice, Azurite. This pigment code can refer to genuine Azurite in rock form (or the greener Malachite) which has been ground or to synthetic versions. Azurite in its natural form is rare in artist paints and is one of the historical mineral pigments. At one time, Natural Pigments made Azurite oil paint, however it is seldom available.

In general PB30 is not exactly perfectly suited to oil binders, and it is reported that this pigment may discolor in oil. This pigment is given a toxicity rating of B, meaning it does have toxicity, so do handle this fascinating pigment with caution.

PB32 - Smalt (Genuine). Historical smalt is glass that has been colored by cobalt (technically "Pulverized and ground potassium glass colored blue by cobalt" according to Artiscreation). This color may darken in an oil painting and is not turned into oil paint. There is a paint out there named Smalt which should be labeled as a hue. The pigment is rated B for toxicity, so use with caution and use protective gear.

PB33 - Manganese Blue (Genuine). An extinct pigment, we first began to miss this pigment not in oil but when working in gouache. We then began to track down Manganese in oils and found this pigment to be quite enjoyable. Not irreplaceable, but certainly lovely. There is a bit of yellowing that happens, but in general a great color. It does have toxicity due to manganese so treat it among the toxic pigments.

PB35 - Cerulean Blue, Cobalt Stannate - Sometimes listed as Cobalt tin oxide or Oxides of Cobalt and Tin. A wonderful color which is softer in mixes than phthalo. This color is used by some painters who paint wet-on-wet rather than phthalo blue because of the way that it combines with other colors in naturalistic painting. This is a B for toxicity so it does require careful handling and the precautions fitting for the category. It has excellent lightfastness, and under normal sunlight conditions this gets solid excellent marks. However in the recent lightfastness testing done by Golden there were some unexpected results when exposed to a special form of light. However this is considered a very lightfast pigment.

PB36 - Cobalt Chromite Blue Green Spinel. Sometimes called Cobalt Turquoise or Cobalt Cerulean. Similar to cerulean blue in some ways as far as its behavior, though the hue of this color may be greener or deeper than Cerulean (PB35). There is an interesting diversity of color in this area with some Cobalt Turquoise colors as light and green, and others being pitched lower and bluer.

PB36:1 - Zinc Cobalt Chrome Aluminum Spinel. Artiscreation includes an interesting note that this color is sometimes substituted for cerulean instead of PB35. It may have a lower cost due to having less cobalt.

PB50 (or PG50) - This is very rarely listed as PB50, and there seems to be some confusion as to whether this is the right pigment for any paints that have it listed. PB60 - Indanthrone Blue PB66 - Indigo. (Synthetic). Opinions are divided on the lightfastness of this pigment. It ranges pretty widely. NB1 - Natural Indigo, from Indigofera tinctoria or Baphicacanthus cusia. This is thought to be fugitive (about ASTM III). PB71 - Zirconium Vanadium Blue. Excellent Lightfastness

Varieties of Cobalt Deep: PB72 - Cobalt Zinc Aluminate Blue, decent to excellent lightfastness with some fading in tints. A variety of Cobalt Blue Deep. Like all cobalts it has toxicity, and it is rated at "B". PB73 - Cobalt Silicate Blue. Rated as excellent for lightfastness, with all 8's on the blue wool scale. This is also rated at "B" for toxicity so handle with care. A variety of Cobalt Blue Deep.

PB74 - Cobalt Zinc Silicate Blue. The classic Cobalt Blue Deep. Sources give this excellent lightfastness ratings. However there may be some sensitivity to certain testing methods.

PB82 - MayaCrom Blue B2050. The breakthrough Maya Blue.

PB86 -the famed new YInMn Blue. This color is somewhat similar to cobalt blue, however mixing an exact match was a little tricker than it seemed at first. While it can be approximated by mixes, the real thing has infrared reflective properties.

Every blue or violet pigment out there feels precious because there are so few of them, especially when it comes to lightfast options. These are fascinating counterweights in colormixing to the greens, and are interesting additions to just about everything.

One of the main issues among violet pigments is lightfastness. It seems that some of the most brilliant and beautiful violets out there fade too much for archival use.

Every now and then we do encounter a less-than-lightfast violet in oils, acrylic, or watercolors. There are more that are not listed here.

As so often happens, we start one out with ones that are a little bit less than awesome.

PV3 - M Methyl Violet or Methyl Violet 2B. A pigment with very poor lightfastness (ASTM IV) as well as toxicity of B, so use with care. This color is used by Schmincke.

PV14 - Cobalt violet (Cobaltous phosphate). This fabulous violet comes in two forms- light and deep, though some brands have a color somewhere in between. (For Cobalt Violet Light see also PV47 and PV49).

In the past this color has been given the most stellar lightfastness ratings, and for a violet it is incredibly lightfast. However, new research from Golden suggests that it may be more vulnerable to a certain kind of light used in their testing methods than once was thought.

This pigment is different from another color called Cobalt Violet from the past, which is Cobalt arsenate, and is very toxic. PV14 has a toxicity rating of B, so it does have toxicity and should be treated with caution.

Cobalt violets were a favorite of the Impressionists, and the darker version of cobalt violet (as well as the more poisonous antiquated version of cobalt violet light) were used by Monet.

PV15 - Ultramarine Violet. A bluish purple, a solid violet, or even a dull pink. Among paints labeled Ultramarine Violet the color can vary from indigo to violet depending on the brand, and if it labeled Ultramarine Red or Ultramarine Pink it's likely to have a different color appearance entirely.

PV15 is listed as having excellent lightfastness, though there may be some nuance to this depending on the mixing white. The indigo varieties are very helpful color for the mixes to neutralize yellow, if one is painting with complements, while the pink varieties are wonderful for toning down greens. This pigment is related to Ultramarine Red as well as Ultramarine Blue.

PV16 - Manganese Violet. This is a bit of a palette secret as one we quite enjoy. Years ago I read of a painter suggesting that this was one of those heroic colors that is underrated and they suggested using it in flesh tones. It does receive excellent marks for lightfastness. It does contain Manganese, which is probably part of the toxicity rating of B, meaning it does have toxicity. This color is superb as a mixing color to tame greens.

PV19 - Quinacridone Violet. There are two forms of PV19, one is a bright electric rose and the other is a plum-like purple. The lightfastness does vary from brand to brand, so this is an area where it is important to do your own lightfastness testing. It varies from decent to excellent, though it can have some dimished lightfastness in tints (speaking of 7's and 8's on the blue wool scale). Lightfastness may be different in watercolor than in oils.

PV23 - Dioxazine Violet, PV23RS A nearly ubiquitous violet. Unfortunately it is not perfectly lightfast, which seems to be a trend among violet pigments. Who could resist such a rich purple gemtone? This is one of those pigments which has varying lightfastness depending on the manufacturer, so it is worth testing one's own paints. For an approximation, one can mix a lightfast PR122 with PB29, however Dioxazine Violet may still offer more chroma than the mix. This is a deep dark color in masstone that unfurls its chroma in glazes and tints.

PV29 - Perylene Violet. A deep moody wine violet-red. Rare in oils, but this color is listed as having excellent lightfastness with solid 8's (highest rating) on the Blue Wool Scale.

PV32 - Benzimiazolone Violet or Bordeaux. The lightfastness of this color varies a large amount from good to poor.

PV37 - Dioxazine Violet (not as common as the other Dioxazine Violet). This version is not used in oils and only a few brands of watercolor carry this. This Dioxazine may be darker than the other. Not to be confused with PV23, which is different. Listed as ASTM II.

PV42 - Quinacridone Violet. A color listed as excellent in lightfastness, something that is a bit of a rarity among violets.

PV47 - Cobalt Lithium Violet Phosphate. This color is toxic. It's distinct from other cobalt violets such as PV47 and PV14.

PV49 - Cobalt Pale Violet. (Cobalt ammonium phosphate). Perhaps our favorite violet in oils for its sheer electricity. This color is positively radiant. It looses a bit of its zip once dried (and seems to yellow less in safflower oil). This paint was recently discontinued and were so sad to see it go. There is nothing like it, and it is perhaps not really possible to even imitate it sufficiently with a hue, at least not with lightfast pigments. It's exceedingly difficult to find red-violets like this at all, especially single-pigment ones. It has a toxicity rating of "B" so as with all pigments, handle it with caution. There may still be some zippy PV14 Cobalt Violet Lights out there. Like other cobalt violets this is an extremely gentle tinter. Some have mentioned opacity in watercolor, but in oil this color is not exactly opaque.

PV55 - Quinacridone Purple. We only wish this pigment had a little better lightfastness. It is gorgeous and hard to find in oils. In some ways it could be said to be related to the look of Dioxazine Violet, but it has a color all its own. A radiant purple gem. Unfortunately it looses a little lightfastness in in tints. Overall 7's and 8's on the Blue Wool Scale. It was made by Daniel Smith until recently, as DS ceased oil paint manufacture in exchange for water-mixable oils.

PV58 - MayaCrom Violet V2001F. One of the fascinating pigments related to Maya Blue.

PV62 - Strontium Violet. A rare pigment and fairly new. It looks like it has a bluish tone to the purple.

PBr11 - Magnesium Ferrite. Reported to have good lightfastness.

PBr23 - Pigment Brown 23. The lightfastness may vary depending on the supplier, with some falloff in tints. However some sources report excellent lightfastness. This is a Disazo Condensation brown.

PBr24 - Chrome Antimony Titanate. A terrific pigment which is always a joy to bump into. This color is a viable substitute if looking for a single-pigment replacement for certain (but not all) Naples Yellow Genuine. This carmel-toned brown is a great addition to a palette. Called Chrome Antimony Titanium Buff Rutile.

PBr25 - Benzimidazolone Brown. Monoazo with reportedly excellent lightfastness. This is a delightful brown that we'd love to encounter more often.

PBr28 - Pigment Brown 28. Reported to have good lightfastness. Fairly uncommon in artists paints. Usually used in dying cotton.

PBr29 - Chrome Iron Brown. Reported to have excellent lightfastness.

PBr33 - Zinc Iron Chromite Brown. Said to have excellent lightfastness.

PBr41 - Disazo Condensation Brown. Some sources report fading in tints, however others list this as excellent for lightfastness.

PBr43 - Iron-Manganese Oxide. This color is listed as B for toxicity, meaning it does have toxicity, likely due to the manganese. It is listed as an ASTM I for lightfastness.

PBr7 - Brown Iron Oxide. This is one of the most common single-pigment paint categories in artists' oils. There is a dazzling amount of variety contained within one pigment code.

Names for paints with PBr7 commonly include Burnt Siennas, Brown Ochres, Burnt Umbers, Raw Umbers, Violet Hematites, Burnt Yellow Ochres (which turn reddish), Raw Siennas, Cassel Earths, Van Dyke Browns, Turkey Umbers, certain Mummy Browns, and more. Each paint name has a sort of unofficial cannon of attributes associated with it.

These colors can range from yellow, orange, red, brown, violet, or even greenish. In brief,

Raw Sienna tends to be a warm gold color that has a bit of an orange note when mixed (a bit oranger or deeper than yellow ochre). This color is sometimes also made of PY42 or PY43 as well.

Burnt Sienna tends to be a middle brown with a red tone that may even go a bit pinkish brown in tints. It is also found as PR101 or PR102.

Burnt Umber tends to be a dark chocolately brown that is warmer than Raw Umber. The umbers sometimes have problems with a phenomenon called sinking-in.

Raw Umber tends to be a cooler dark brown that may even have a very faint green leaning to it. Some Italian Green Umbers are raw umbers that are especially cool. Similarly Turkey Umber sometimes has a note of green (or even some extra PG7) mixed into it. Like other umbers, Raw Umber can be associated with "sinking-in" so it is helpful to understand the causes and plan one's painting accordingly. Sometimes umbers contain natural manganese which speeds drying.

Burnt Yellow Ochre is a somewhat rare name, however it is interested that when burnt (or calcined as they say) it turns reddish.

PBr8 - Manganese Brown. This has a toxicity rating of B, likely due to Manganese, which is a natural drier. Not to be confused with NBr8, which is genuine Cassel Earth- PBr8 is a different pigment.

PBr9 - Copper Ferrocyanide. This is not a lightfast pigment, with results ranging from moderate to poor. It also has toxicity as it is rated "B".

NBr8 Natural Cassel Earth (also sometimes called Van Dyke Brown or Cologne Brown). At the time of this writing, there does not seem to be any availability of natural Cassel Earth. Even some of the better lightfastness ratings for NBr8 show some lightfastness loss in tints. However depending on the source for the pigment, the lightfastness can vary widely. Today, Van Dyke Brown is usually a blend of pigments (convenience blend) to create a deep brown-black.

Properties from pigment to pigment vary such as undertone, oil absorption, and and drying time. As an oil painter, I tend to think in terms of carbon blacks vs. everything else. There is a lot of name confusion among the carbon blacks and sometimes one feels as though someone came in and just enjoyed the idea of mixing and matching the historical names.

One of the issues among black pigments is the drying time. Mars Black tends to be a speedier drier than the carbon blacks, which can be plagued with drying issues (this is often associated with Lamp Black, but as we shall see, Lamp Black can refer to PBk6, PBk7, or even PBk9 as the naming structure is fairly free in this part of the spectrum).

Ok, we're not talking Stuart Semple black. But it was rumored long ago that Holbein's peach black was the blackest black for oil paintings.

PBk1 - Aniline Black, an ingredient found in some oils mixed with PBk6. This is a component of Holbein's Peach Black, which was at one time rumored to be the darkest black in oil paints. Whether that is still true is up for exploration. This addition of PBk1 to PBk6, which is carbon black, is interesting. Some sources suggest Analine black may not be super lightfast, though Carbon black is. Handprint suggests that perhaps one should not use this pigment in tints.

PBk10 - Graphite. We've found this to be an intense paint. Fairly rare to find in oils.

PBk11 - Mars Black. This is an important artist color which is actually, strangely, magnetic. It is reported to have excellent lightfastness. Technically Ferroso-ferric oxide, this can be thought of like a black earth or Black Iron Oxide. There seem to be a few naturally occurring pigment sources which soften the intensity of Mars Black just a little. A couple of benefits are that it doesn't take as much oil to make a paint out of Mars Black as it does out of a Lamp Black and has better drying.

PBk14 - Manganese Black, or Manganese Dioxide. Has a toxicity of "B", so a pigment with some toxicity. This is not commonly found as a single-pigment paint, however it is a component of a lot of earth tones, such as umbers.

PBk19 - Slate Black or Slate Grey/Gray. We are weirdly enchanted by this color, as it is the basis for several off-the-beaten-path grey earth tones such as French Ardoise Gray. Made of Hydrated Aluminum Silicate or just "slate". It's fun to experiment with mixing the lighter forms of this pigment with lemon yellows.

PBk26 - Manganese Ferrite Black. A rare paint, this is one of the darker blacks, this is made of Manganese Ferrite Black Spinel. Interestingly Gamblin's Black Spinel is not this pigment but rather it is PBk28.

PBk28 - Copper Chromite Black. The pigment in Gamblin's famous Black Spinel- rare to find in oil paints. This does not contain carbon and Gamblin describes their paint as drying matte.

PBk31 - Paliogen® Black. We know this pigment as Perylene Green, and quickly fell in love with it as a green black. It has a low lightness but still have some chroma. It mixes beautifully with other colors and is reported to have excellent lightfastness.

PBk32 - Perylene Black. Also called Perylene Green, this color is not often found in oils.

The names for the carbon blacks are used somewhat freely by paintmakers. It can be a bit of a trick to figure out which is which, and this is one of many reasons pigment codes are handy. These are not generally though of as toxic, however carbon black is sometimes listed as a carcinogen, so like all pigments handle with care.

PBk6 - Carbon Black. Pure carbon. According to artiscreation, this is often by burning petroleum residue. Also note: Shungite shares this pigment code, however this is mostly in relation to Russian Icons. Natural Pigments sells this rare version of PBk6. Since this is only from Karelia, Russia, most PBk6 will refer to normal carbon black. Carbon black is associated with slow drying, and may slow drying of other colors when mixed with other pigments. This color is not always everyone’s favorite since it pulls blue-black in mixes and has a large dry shift in watercolors.

Some companies call their PBk6 oil paint Lamp Black, Ivory Black, Transparent Black, or Carbon Black.

PBk7 - Lamp black. Technically called Amorphous carbon from soot. This tends to be a fairly cool black. It is related to some significant drying problems in oil, so use with a bit of caution. Paintmakers may call this Lamp, Carbon black, or even Ivory Black, even though it is usually made by burning petroleum.

PBk8 - Vine Black. A rarer carbon black which is still found in oil paints. This variety is usually made from burning vegetable or organic matter and tends to be somewhat softened by impurities of various kinds.

PBk9 - Bone Black or Ivory Black. Thankfully this color is no longer made of real ivory, and Old Holland is one of the few brands that labels it correctly as a hue. It is not vegan, as it is made of burned animal bones. The color is a bit of a warmer black and has a bit of transparency. Most paintmakers call their bone black Ivory Black, but at least one also labels this Lamp Black, so here the pigment code will help.

Which white to choose? It will affect nearly everything on your palette.

Special attention may be paid to the binding oil in one's white paint, as it is not just the pigment that matters.

Recently, Golden undertook lightfastness testing to explore how the choice of mixing whites affects the lightfastness of various pigments. In this test, binding oils in conjunction with the various white pigments seemed to be important factors.

The major pigments for white are Titanium, Zinc, and Lead. There are a few others such as Lithopone, however these are not generally widely used. Among white pigments, there are often undisclosed extenders or inert pigments, which tend to be transparent in oils. These are added mainly to use less of the expensive pigments, but sometimes they are also added to change the working properties of the paints.

In brief, Titanium is a cool, opaque white which is toxic if inhaled, but was until recently was considered generally non-toxic. This is a ubiquitous color which has good covering power and is very bright. Titanium is a slower drier and so the paint may contain added driers.

Lead white is a toxic, warm, semi-translucent white which forms strong paint films but also yellows a bit more noticeably. Lead has drying properties so it tends to dry quickly on its own.

Zinc white used to be very popular, but has been linked (in larger amounts) to early embrittlement of paint films. It is a cool, semi-translucent white which was favored in convenience blends for imparting some softening to the opacity of titanium and for its own charming nature. Many brands have since removed zinc from their paint blends since it is unknown how much may cause cracking.

Natural Pigments article on Which White to Choose

...Since Permanent might be too strong a word.

But when talking about strength, it doesn't get much better than lead white when it comes to forming good paint films. However it is toxic!

There are many names for lead white, which unfortunately have been used rather freely by paintmakers over the years, so it is often hard to determine exactly which name refers to which pigment variety or blend. Sometimes within a brand they will have a Flemish White, a Lead White, and a Cremnitz White, and they will use these historical names to differentiate between lead whites made with different oils, or different pigment blends.

Lead White, also known as Flake White, Cremnitz White, Cremser White, Dutch Process White, Ceruse, and Silver White, to name just a few of the most common ones.

PW1 - Lead White. This is the main lead white pigment. Aside from it's toxicity, which is serious, this color is known for having translucency, warmth, and gentler tinting strength than titanium. All these qualities make it prized for applications such as portraiture and flesh tones. It is a warmer white than Titanium. Lead white is also a natural drier. Modern lead white is not made in the same way as historical lead white, and one of the differences is the particle size of the pigment. The historical Dutch Process, sometimes called Stack Lead White leads to different properties in paint behavior (the five-dollar word for this is thixotropy). As with any other white paint, which will be mixed into the other colors on the palette, binding oils make a huge difference. It's common to find Lead White in linseed oil or walnut oil.

Natural Pigments has made lead one of their specialties, and has a number of articles on Lead White:

Stack Process Lead White Historical Manufacture of Stack Lead White Flemish White and Lead Sulfate

Some companies are pursuing interesting alternatives that - while not lead white replacements in terms of chemistry - they are quite welcome paints.

PW2 - Lead Sulphate White. Sometimes we see this referred to as Flemish White. Here we refer to artiscreation on this pigment. There is a bit of confusion sometimes between PW2 and PW3. At this time, we have not found any PW3 paints in oils, and PW2 is rather hard to find.

PW18 - Chalk, Calcium Carbonate, Calcite, Precipitated Chalk. This pigment is used extensively- it is almost transparent in oil but it gives opacity to watercolor and is used in gouache. Can be limestone or marble. Also called whiting. This can also include marble dust, which comes in several very different particle sizes. Sometimes this is used as a base, and it is commonly used as an extender in oil paint. While this color has an excellent blue wool scale rating, its role in lightfastness is still being explored.

PW19 - Kaolin clay. Related to bentonite. (If you are familiar with house building bentonite is part of expansive shale - which is a particular issue where we are from in Colorado). PW19 is mostly hydrated Aluminium Silicate and may also bring along some impurities. Kaolin is usually bright white but it can carry a color cast depending on the supplier.

PW20 - Mica, or Mica Titanate. Adds pearlescence to paint films. Mica is often combined with other things (e.g. Mica Titanate Iron Oxide) to create a pearlescent color. For more about pearlescent pigments, see What are Pearlescent Pigments and How do they Work? by Natural Pigments.

PW22 - Baryte (natural Barium Sulfate) or Blanc Fixe. A filler or extender that also makes a paint blend feel heavier. According to artiscreation, it is possible that this could have soluble barium if it is not made with high standards, in which case that could be quite toxic. PW24 - Alumina Hydrate. A filler and extender, and also used as the basis for lake pigments (e.g., alizarin or phthalo).

PW25- Gypsum. Hydrated calcium sulfate. An extender in paint. Also used in gesso and grounds. Artiscreation lists Calcium sulfate dihydrate as a high quality Terra Alba and Alabaster Natural Hydrated Calcium Sulfate under PW25.

PW26 - Talc. This is not often listed on paint tubes, however it is an extender.

Other inert pigments and paintmaking additives can be found at artiscreation. This collection of fillers and extenders for paintmaking lists a few which are available: Bologna Chalk, Clear Glass Powder, Aluminum Trihydrate (ATH), Calcined Kaolinite, Perlite, Mica (Wet Ground), Alabaster, Marble dust, Barite, Silica, Nepheline Syenite, and Wollastonite.

PW4 - Zinc Oxide White. There was that one time we sold off a bunch of colors on ebay because they contained zinc. There may be a helpful amount of zinc in oil paints, but it might be years before we know how much zinc is beneficial and how much will cause early embrittlement of a painting.

This color has been the subject of a lot of controversy in oils, but zinc appears to be fine in watercolor, that is, if you even use white in watercolor. It is more often called Chinese White when used in watercolor.

Zinc Oxide is a crisp, cool white. We favored zinc for mixes with cyans to make tints, and many convenience colors contained a bit of zinc white to soften the overall look. It is hard to replace it entirely. Zinc was celebrated for its role in emulating some of the gentle, gauzy transparency of lead white without the lead. That note of translucency is prized in many forms of realistic painting or to make atmospheric effects in abstract painting.

In some cases a brand's basic Titanium White contained a hearty dose of zinc as a matter of course because it imparted desirable working properties to the Titanium. Some brands may not have actually disclosed whether there is added zinc (unlisted) in their Titanium- see [this discussion] for more information.

However, it is now widely recognized that too much zinc can be linked to early embrittlement and delamination. Golden published a series of articles on their research concerning zinc:

Zinc Oxide Warnings, Cautions, and Best Practices Zinc Oxide Reviewing the Research Zinc Oxide Search for the Dividing Line Natural Pigments Zinc Free Zone

Please note there are different ways in which zinc was prepared. There used to be a version with a larger particle size.

PW6 - Titanium White, Titanium Dioxide. Love it, hate it, but could oil painters live without it? This powerhouse pigment is one of the most used pigments in oil painting. Titanium White is associated with coolness and opacity, which is why we love it in so many applications like Gesso and grounds. When we need to cover a surface with an acrylic paint, we reach for Titanium White. In oils it makes a buttery paint. It also has a reputation for high tinting strength as well as a "chalkiness" in tints that some consider overpowering. On the other hand, what would we use for the brightest highlights and speculars if not Titanium White.

The high tinting strength can partially be cut with fillers, modifiers, or other pigments, however we have grown fond of the super-high-tinting version by Rublev. The chalkiness can be amended by the addition of other pigments, and titanium is popular in many convenience blends which are tints of other colors.

Perhaps the greatest drawback for titanium is the softer paint film that it forms.

The differences in binding oils will matter a fair amount to oil painters as will the effect of additives. Just take a look at pure Titanium White in Linseed oil in the pictures found here to appreciate the effects of just a little bit of chalk and beeswax. Extensive interest in this over the years reveals it's a complicated matter, but here are some more results from Golden on the binding oil specifically: On the Yellowing of Oils.

We have also found that Titanium White can darken a bit after it dries. This is important if one is doing work with tightly controlled values (such as a Munsell-informed workflow). We have also noticed other strange anomalies, mainly regarding Titanium White in safflower oil. We made inquiries about this and the best answer we have received so far was that the slow drying combined with small pigment sizes in inoragnic pigments can create flows within the drying paints. Sometimes it seems that organic paints with a small particle size may not dry evenly within a thick, slow-drying titanium dioxide passage.

The Rutile kind is more common, the Anatase kind is seldom found.

PW6:1 Natural Titanium Dioxide bound with Ferric Oxides. This often has a buff or oyster shell color that can be nice in realistic painting. Buff Titanium as it is often called has reportedly high lightfastness, however Golden found a few anomalies in some of their lightfastness testing.

PW7 - Lithopone, or Zinc Sulphide White. While this bears zinc in the name, it is not the zinc of concern to oil painters. In a world where PW4 concerns us more than a little, we've been looking for white pigments that will yield that extra bit of cool blueness in cyan tints. Lithopone is a potential route, however we're awaiting more information about its lightfastness over time. See Golden's lightfastness testing which explores the properties of various mixing whites. Artiscreation mentions its phosphorescence and use as invisible ink.

Strontium Titanate - Ceramic White. We bought this color as part of our explorations into lead white alternatives. While Titanium is amazing for so many things, its opacity can make it a bit challenging to work with. It is nice to have some white colors that borrow from the working properties of zinc or lead without the toxicity of lead. Based on a rare Siberian mineral called Tausonite, this is an interesting and less opaque white than Titanium. Currently this pigment is used by Holbein in Ceramic White.

Fluorescent dyes, pearlescent pigments, and metallics that become the sparkling gold or faux copper sometimes found in paint lines. Here are some of the special effects pigments used in painting.

For information about fluorescent colors, see Golden's The Science and Seduction of Luminescent Colors.

Fluorescent colors are not lightfast.

A and AX pigments are thermoplastic fluorescent pigments "where resistance to strong solvents is not needed" -DayGlo

AX-11-5 - DayGlo Aurora Pink, Fluorescent Pink

AX-16-N - DayGlo Arc Yellow, Fluorescent AX-17 AX-18-N- DayGlo Signal Green, Fluorescent AX-21 -DayGlo Corona Magenta Fluorescent

SG3 -Solvent Green 3 Dye. May possibly refer to this

SY163 - Sudacolor Yellow 163. According to this technical listing may actually be PY17 (Dairylide Yellow 17), which is a yellow with moderate to poor lightfastness.

SY33 - Solvent Yellow 33. Not much is known about its lightfastness.

VR1 - Vat Red 1. A thoindigo pigment

VR41 - Deep Red Solvent Dye, often used in fabric dying

Mica- see PW20

PM1, P Met 1, PMet1, or Pigment Metallic 1. Powdered Aluminum. Please note uncoated powdered aluminum is associated with several hazards- it can be explosive and it can also release harmful gasses. Check out artiscreation for more.

PM2 P Met 2, PMet2, or Pigment Metallic 2. Powdered Copper Alloy.